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A  UTHOR: 


PENNELL,  ROBERT 
FRANKLIN 


TITLE: 


ANCIENT  GREECE, 
FROM  THE  EARLIEST 


PLACE: 


BOSTON 


DA  TE: 


1885 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 
PRESERVATION  DEPARTMENT 


Master  Negative  // 

^3-  8l  6(5-  7 


DIDLIOGRAPHIC  MICROFORM  TARGET 


Original  Material  as  Filmed  -  Existing  Bibliographic  Record 


R84 
P38 


Pennell,  Robort  Praiiklin, 

Ancient  Creoce  from  tlio  oorliost  tinos  down  to 


146  B.  C,,  conpilod  by  R.  F.  Ponnoll 
Allyn,  1005. 

128  p#  platos       10  en. 


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Boston, 


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COMPILED   BY 

R.    F.    PENNELL, 

QI8TBIT0T0B  IX  PHILLIPS  EXETEB  ACADEMY. 


O^W^L^    tTSlj 


BOSTON: 
JOHN    ALLYN,    PUBLISHER, 

LATE  SEVER,  FRANCIS,  &  CO. 

1885. 


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PREFACE. 


Entered  according  to  Act  ot  Congress,  in  the  year  1874,  by 

JOHN    ALLYN, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


University  Press: 
John  Wilson  &  Son,  Cambridgb. 


'T^HIS  volume  is  composed  of  selections  taken 
chiefly  from  Curtius  and  Rawlinson,  and 
arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  bring  in  events 
of  the  first  importance.  All  other  facts,  even 
though  important,  have  been  omitted,  on  the 
principle  that  a  mere  compilation  of  names  and 
dates  is  not  only  unattractive,  but  also  highly 
injurious,  to  the  beginner. 

The  matter  contained  in  the  book  is  amply 
sufficient  to  prepare  one  in  Greek  history  for  any 
of  our  colleges.     At  the  same  time  the  preparatory 

student  should  remember  that  the  true  place  to 

learn  the  history  of  the  Greeks   and   Romans   is 

in  their  writings. 

I  wish  here  to  express  my  obligation  to  Dr. 

D.  F.  Wells  for  his  kind  and  gentlemanly  assi>it- 

ance  in  preparing  the  map   and  plans  given  in 

the  history. 

R.  F.  Pennell. 


Exeter,  N.H.,  June  20,  1874. 


11 


'»»  » ' > 


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INTllODUCTION. 


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Uftr, 


IN  times  long  before  any  recorded  liistory,  there  lived 
in  Asia  (possibly  in  tlie  region  lying  between  the 
rivers  Oxus  and  Jaxartes)  a  people  called  the  Aryans. 
As  this  race  increased  in  numbers,  their  country  became 
too  small  to  sii]»port  tlie  excess  of  poi)ulation.  Tliis  ex- 
cess found  relief  in  mii^ratinc:  to  the  south  and  west. 

The  earliest  migrations  west  were  made  by  the  Celts, 
who  pushed  on  as  lar  as  the  Atlantic  toast,  and  whose 
language  is  represented  to-day  by  the  inhabitants  of 
Bretagne,  Wales,  and  Ireland. 

The  second  migration  was  made  by  the  Teutons,  the 
ancestors  of  the  English,  Germans,  Danes,  Swedes,  and 
Norwegians. 

The  Teutons  were  followed  by  the  Slaves  and  Lithu- 
anians, from  whom  are  descended  the  inhabitants  of 
Russia,  Bohemia,  Hungary,  and  Poland. 

Distinct  from  these  migrations,  another  succession  of 
tribes  left  the  primitive  Aryan  race  in  later  times,  and 
occupied  the  peninsulas  of  Greece  and  Italy.  They 
were  called  the  Peiasgi,  and  their  language  formed  the 
foundation  of  both  the  Latin  and  Greek  tongue. 

Nothing  definite  is  known  about  the  Pelasgic  period 
of  Greece. 


^ 


I 


li 


2  INTRODUCTION, 

;• '. :  •.SdK»eqnoi)fl}-6tlrer  tribes  branched  off  from  the  same 
...  ijigt4»§r  triiii3c;avci' swept  over  Greece.     Althouijh  oriiri 
/.t^^y.pf.thetsflind.race  as  the  l^ehisgi,  they  were  mor^^ 
highly /yyilizofl  .©n»acpouiit  of  tlieir  contact,  in  course  of 
.V  .V»g';^'itiOCj3'ilh'!Eistorn  nations. 

The  tribe  that  was  destined  to  be  predominant 
among  these  was  tlie  Hellenes,  who  first  settled  in 
Hellas,  a  small  district  of  southern  Thessaly,  but  finally 
spread  over  the  Avhole  of  Greece  and  assimilated  the 
other  tribes  to  themselves. 

The  early  history  of  the  Hellenes  is  as  much  envel- 
oped in  darkness  as  that  of  the  Pelasgi.  They  claimed 
to  be  descended  from  a  common  ancestor,  Helleu ;  and 
that  from  his  two  sons,  Dorus  and  iEolus,  and  two 
grandsons.  Ion  and  Achaeus,  were  sprung  the  four  grand 
divisions  of  the  Hellenic  race,  —  viz.,  Dorians,  iEolians, 
lonians,  and  Achseans. 

The  lonians  and  Dorians  became  the  leading  races; 
the  former  represented  by  Athens,  the  latter  by  Sparta. 

To  relate  all  the  stories  of  the  Greeks  about  their 
ancestors  would  require  a  volume  hi  itself.  We  shall 
speak  of  only  a  few. 

Cecrops,^  who  came  from  Egy]>t,  was  said  to  be  the 
first  king  of  Attica.     He  founded  Athens,  and  divided 

J  Codrus  (1045  n.c.)  was  the  last  king  of  Athens.  When  his 
city  was  hard  pressed  hy  the  Dorians,  an  oracle  stated  that  his 
death  would  ensure  the  safety  of  the  city.  The  patriotic  king 
went  to  the  camp  of  the  enemy  in  disguise,  and  in  a  quarrel  with 
the  soldiers  managed  to  be  killed.  The  Athenians,  unable  to  find 
a  suitable  successor  to  such  a  hero,  abolished  the  title  of  king,  elect- 
ing Medon,  the  son  of  Codrus,  as  Archon  for  life. 

This  was  the  beginning  of  the  life  Archons,  which  lasted  until 
752  B.C.,  when  Archons  were  appointed  to  hold  office  for  ten 
years,  called  Decennial  Archons 


INTRODUCTION. 


3 


the  state  into  twelve  parts.  He  introduced  civilization^ 
marriage,  and  the  worship  of  the  gods. 

Danaiis  was  an  ancient  king  of  Argos.  He  had  fled 
from  Egypt  with  his  fifty  daughters,  and  was  selected 
by  the  Argives  as  their  monarch. 

Pelops  was  a  native  of  Phrygia.  Driven  from  his 
country,  he  wandered  to  Greece,  where  he  became  of 
so  much  influence  that  all  southern  Greece  was  called 
after  him  the  Peloponnesus,  Le.  "Island  of  Pelops." 
His  son  Atreus  was  king  of  Mycenro. 

Cadmus  was  a  Phoenician,  who  founded  Thebes,  in- 
troduced the  use  of  letters  and  the  cultivation  of  the 

vine. 

From  these  traditions  we  can  infer  that  the  Egyptians, 
Phoenicians,  and  Phrygians  settled  in  various  localities 
in  Greece.  The  civilization  of  these  settlers  was  higher 
than  that  of  the  people  among  whom  they  settled. 
Hence  the  Greeks  were  improved  by  them.  From 
the  Phoenicians  they  learned  the  use  of  the  alphabet. 
But  these  settlers  were  not  numerous,  and  did  not 
affect  the  language,  customs,  or  religion  of  the  Greeks 
to  any  marked  extent. 

Religion. 

The  earliest  form  of  Pelasgic  religion  was  the  wor- 
ship of  one  supreme  being,  Zeus  (Jupiter).  The  most 
ancient  oracle  in  Greece  was  dedicated  to  him  at 
Dodona,  in  Epeirus.  The  responses  of  the  oracle  were 
given  from  the  sacred  oaks,  in  the  rustling  of  whose 
leaves  the  voice  of  the  divinity  was  heard.  Subse- 
quently the  worship  of  other  divinities  was  introduced, 
as  that  of  Aphrodite  (Venus),  Poseidon  (Neptune) ; 
and  in  Attica,  Demeter  (Ceres),  and  Athena  (Minerva^. 


INTRODUCTION, 


But  the  god  whose  worship  was  more  universal  than 
that  of  Zeus  even,  was  Apollo.  To  his  oracle  at  Delphi, 
pei-sons  came  from  all  parts  of  the  Hellenic  world  to 
consult  the  priestess  called  Pythia.  Here  was  kept  a 
golden  statue  of  the  god,  and  a  lire  never  allowed  to 
die  out.  In  the  centre  of  the  temple  there  was  a  small 
opening  in  the  ground,  from  which  arose  an  intoxicating 
vapot  supposed  to  be  the  breath  of  the  god.  The 
sacred  tripod  (three-footed  stool)  stood  over  this  open- 
ing, on  which  the  priestess  took  her  seat  whenever  the 
oracle  was  to  be  consulted.  Inspii-ed  by  the  vapor, 
she  gave  her  answers  in  verse  (hexameters).  These 
answers  were  not  infrequently  ambiguous,  and  might 
be  interpreted  in  several  ways.  The  Delphian  Oracle 
supplanted  in  a  great  measure  that  of  Zeus  at  Dodona. 

Mount  Olympus  was  the  abode  of  the  gods;  and 
here  was  the  throne  of  Zeus,  who,  with  his  wife  Hera 
(Juno),  was  the  chief  of  the  Olympian  council.  It 
consisted  of  six  gods  and  six  goddesses.^ 

Heroes. 

Among  the  heroes  of  ancient  Greece,  three  stand 
out  prominent :  — 

1  Besides  Zeus  and  Hera,  there  were  in  this  council  t^- 
Poseidon  (Neptune),  the  god  of  the  sea, 
Apollo,  the  god  of  music,  poetry,  and  eloquence. 
Ares  [Mars),  the  god  of  uxir. 
Hephsestus  (  Vidcan),  the  god  of  jire. 
Hermes  (Mercurg),  the  messenger  of  the  godM, 
Athena  {Minerva),  the  goddess  of  wisdom, 
Artemis  {Diana),  the  goddess  of  hunting. 
Aphrodite  (  Venus),  the  goddess  of  love, 
Hestia  ( Vesta),  tlie  goddess  of  domestic  life, 
Dcmeter  {Ceres),  the  goddess  of  harvests. 


INTRODUCTION,  O 

1.  Heracles  (Hercules),  the  national  hero  of  Greece. 

2.  Theseus,  the  hero  of  Attica. 

3.  Minos,  kinor  of  Crete  and  founder  of  Greek  law 
and  civilization.  He  was  supposed  to  have  received  his 
laws  direct  from  Zeus. 

Theseus  was  one  of  the  early  kings  of  Athens,  and 
founded  her  future  greatness  by  instituting  laws  and 
festivals,  erecting  public  buildings,  and  establishing  a 
government. 

Heracles  was  son  of  Zeus  by  Alcmena,  the  wife  of 
Amphitryon  of  Thebes.  Zeus  visited  Alcmena  in  the 
form  of  her  husband,  while  he  was  absent,  and  became 
by  her  the  father  of  Heracles.  He  was  noted  for  his 
great  strength  and  courage,  and  was  generally  repre- 
sented as  carrying  a  club.  His  great-uncle,  Eurystheus, 
imposed  upon  him  twelve  labors,^  all  of  which  he  per- 
formed successfully. 

He  afterwards  married  Deianeira.  She,  becoming 
jealous  of  a  female  prisoner  he  had  taken,  gave  to  him 
a  garment  soaked  in  poisoned  blood.  As  soon  as  he 
had  put  on  this  garment,  and  the  poison  began  to 
penetrate  his  body,  he  was  seized  with  terrible  pains. 


*     1.  Fight  with  the  Nemean  lion. 
2.  Fight  against  the  Lernean  hydra. 
8.  Capture  of  the  Arcadian  stag. 
4.  Destruction  of  the  Erymanthian  boar. 
6.   Cleansing  of  the  stables  of  Augeas,  king  of  Elii, 

6.  Destruction  of  the  Stymphalian  birds. 

7.  Capture  of  the  Cretan  bull. 

8.  Capture  of  the  mares  ofDiomedes,  king  of  Thrace, 

9.  Seizure  of  the  girdle  of  the  Queen  of  the  Amazons, 
10*   Capture  of  the  oxen  of  Geryones  in  Erythia. 

11.  Fetching  of  the  golden  apples  of  the  Ilesperides. 

12.  Bringing  the  three-headed  dog,  Cerberus,  from  the  lower  world 


6 


INTRODUCTION, 


Seeing  that  death  was  near,  he  ascended  Mount 
(Eta,  raised  a  pile  of  wood,  on  wliich  lie  placed  him- 
self, and  ordered  it  to  be  set  on  fire.  When  the  pilo 
was  burning,  a  cloud  came  down  and  enveloped  him ; 
and  amid  peals  of  thunder  he  was  carried  to  Olympus, 
where  he  was  honored  with  immortality. 

The  IIeracleid^,  the  descendants  of  Heracles, 
were  driven  out  of  the  Peloponnesus  shortly  after  the 
death  of  their  ancestor,  and  settled  in  southern  Thes- 
saly.  One  hundred  years  later,  in  1104  B.C.,  they  re- 
conquered (with  the  aid  of  the  Dorians)  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, and  divided  its  government  among  the  lineal 
descendants  of  Heracles.  Tins  was  called  the  Dorian" 
Invasion,  or  the  Return  op  the  Heracleid^. 

The  Siege  of  Troy.    (1194-1184  B.C.) 

There  was  to  be  a  great  wedding  on  Mount  Pelion. 
The  nymph  Thetis  was  to  be  married  to  the  mortal 
Peleus.  All  the  gods  and  goddesses  were  invited  to 
participate  in  the  rejoicings;  but,  that  there  might  bo 
perfect  unanimity  in  the  assembly,  the  goddess  of 
Discord  (Eris)  was  not  asked.  With  feelings  full  of 
anger,  she  threw  among  the  guests  a  golden  apple,  on 
which  was  inscribed,  "For  the  beauty,"  hoping  thereby 
to  cause  discord.  Hera,  Athena,  and  Aphrodite,  each 
claimed  the  apple,  on  the  ground  of  being  "  the  beauty." 
Zeus  was  appealed  to.  He  ordered  Hermes  to  escort 
the  goddesses  to  Mount  Ida  in  Troas,  where  Paris,  the 
son  of  the  king  of  Troy,  was  tending  his  flocks.  He 
was  to  be  the  umpire.  Hera  promised  him  the  sover- 
eignty of  Asia ;  Athena,  renown  in  war ;  Aphrodite, 
the  fairest  of  women  for  a  bride.  Paris  decided  in 
iavor  of  the  latter. 


INTRODUCTION. 


He  afterwards  went  to  the  court  of  Menelaiis,  kmg 
of  Sparta,  whose  wife,  Helen,  was  the  most  beautiful 
woman  in  the  world.  In  the  absence  of  his  host,  ho 
ran  off  with  Helen,  and  thus  Aphrodite  fulfilled  her 
promise.  Before  her  marriage,  Helen  had  been  wooed 
by  princes  from  all  parts  of  Greece.  These  princes 
resolved  to  punish  Paris  for  his  audacity,  and  fitted 
out  an  expedition  against  Troy.  Agamemnon,  brother 
of  Menelaiis  and  king  of  MycensB,  was  placed  in  com- 
mand. 

The  fleet  rendezvoused  at  Aulis,  in  Boeotia,  from 
which  place  it  sailed  to  Troy. 

The  Trojans  endured  a  siege  of  ten  years,  but  were 
finally  overcome  by  treachery.  Priam  was  king  of  the 
city,  whose  son  Hector,  the  greatest  Trojan  hero,  was 
killed  by  Achilles ;  and  his  body,  tied  to  the  chariot 
of  his  victor,  was  dragged  around  the  walls  of  the 
city  three  times.  uEneas  was  a  brave  Trojan.  His 
wanderings  from  Troy  to  Italy,  where  his  descendants 
founded  Rome,  are  the  subject  of  the  Epic  poem  of 
Virgil. 

The  hero  of  the  Greeks  before  Troy  was  Achilles 
son  of  Peleus  and  Thetis.  He  was  the  handsomest 
and  bravest  of  all,  and  could  not  be  wounded  in  any 
place  except  his  heel.  An  arrow  from  the  bow  of 
Paris,  unluckily  striking  him  in  this  his  only  vulner- 
able spot,  caused  his  death  just  before  the  close  of  the 


siege. 


Odysseus  (Ulysses)  was  second  only  to  Achilles  in 
bravery.  In  wisdom  he  was  superior  to  all  the  Greeks, 
being  their  chief  adviser  before  Troy.  He  was  king 
of  Ithaca,  an  island  west  of  Greece.  There  his  wife 
Penelope,  a  matron  noted  for  her  virtues  and  accoin- 


8 


INTRODUCTION. 


plishments,    waited   faithfully    twenty    years   for  the 
return  of  her  lord  and  master. 

Homer.* 

The  Epic  poet  of  Greece  lived,  probably,  in  the  ninth 
century  b.c.  His"niad"  and  "Odyssey"  are  poems 
of  the  highest  order,  never  equalled  by  any  of  his 
many  imitators.  The  subject  of  the  "Iliad"  is  the 
siege  of  Troy  during  the  last  year.  The  "Odyssey" 
gives  an  account  of  the  wanderings  of  Odysseus  from 
Troy  to  Ithaca. 

Society  among  the  Eably  Geeeks 

Was  divided  into  four  classes. 

1.  An  hereditary  king. 

2.  The  nobles,  or  counsellors  of  the  king. 

3.  The  common  people,  who,  practically,  had  no 
voice  in  the  government. 

4.  The  slaves. 

The  power  of  the  king  was  not  absolute.  He  was 
counselled  by  the  nobles,  who*  were  expected  to  express 
their  opinions  freely  upon  all  matters.  The  people' 
were  called  together  to  listen  to  their  debates,  and  ex- 
press their  opinion  of  them  by  applause,  or  the  con- 
trary. 

Olympic  Festival. 

One  of  the  chief  ties  that  united  the  Greeks  was 
the  Olympic  festival.     This  was  celebrated   once   in 

1  Seven  cities  claimed  the  honor  of  being  the  birthplace  of 
Homer ;  viz.,  Smyrna,  Chios,  Colophon,  Salamis,  Rhodos,  Argo*, 
Athenae. 

*  The  council  of  the  nobles  was  called  the  Boule. 

*  The  assembly  of  the  people  was  called  the  Agora. 


INTRODUCTION 


^  four  years  at  Olympia,  in  Elis,  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Alpheius.  Here  all  sorts  of  games  were  engaged 
in,  such  as  wrestling,  boxing,  jumping,  foot  races, 
chariot  races,  &c.  This  festival  became  of  so  much 
renown,  that  not  only  the  Greeks  attended  it,  but 
people  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  Greeks  used 
the  Olympic  festival  as  an  era  in  dates.  The  year 
776  B.C.  was  regarded  as  the  first  Olympiad.  To  be 
proclaimed  victor  at  these  games,  before  the  assembled 
crowds,  was  considered  the  greatest  honor  to  be  ob- 
tained.    The  only  prize  was  a  garland  of  wild  olive. 

There  were  also  the  Pythian  games,  held  in  honor 
of  Apollo,  at  Delphi,  once  in  four  years;  the  Nemean 
games,  in  honor  of  Zeus,  at  Nemea  in  Argolis ;  the 
Isthmian  games,  in  honor  of  Poseidon,  on  the  Isthmus 
of  Corinth,  at  its  narrowest  part.  The  last  two  were 
celebrated  once  in  every  two  years. 


CHAPTER  I. 


Geography  of  Greece. 

I.  Greece  proper  is  a  peninsula  in  the  soutliern  part 
of  Europe,  situated  between  tlie  36th  and  40th  degrees 
of  North  Latitude.  It  is  250  miles  long,  from  its  ex- 
treme northern  to  its  extreme  southern  limit,  i,e,  from 
the  promontory  Acroceraunia  to  Cape  Tainarum,  and 
180  miles  broad  in  its  widest  part,  i.e.  from  Cape 
Actium  to  the  plain  of  Marathon.  It  is  in  size  but 
little  larorer  than  the  State  of  Maine,  which  has  about 
35,000  square  miles. 

Greece  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Illyricum  and 
Macedonia;  on  the  east  by  the  ^gean  sea;  on  the 
south  by  the  Mediterranean ;  on  the  west  by  the 
Ionian  sea.  It  may  be  divided  for  convenience  into 
three  grand  divisions;  viz..  Northern  Greece,  Central 
Greece,  and  Southern  Greece,  or  the  Peloponnesus,  as 
the  last  is  usually  called. 

Northern  Greece  includes  Thessalia,  Epeirus,  and 
Dolopia. 

Central  Greece  includes  Acarnania,  ^tolia.  Western 
Lociis,  Phocis,  Doris,  Malis,  Central  Locris,  Eastern 
Locris,  Boeotia,  Attica,  and  Megaris. 

The  Peloponnesus  includes  all  south  of  Megaris;  viz., 


12 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  GREECE, 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  GREECE, 


13 


Corinthia,  Sicyonia,  Achaia,  Elis,  Messenia,  Arcadia, 
Laconia,  and  Argolis. 

II.  Greece  is  surrounded  by  many  islands,  the  largest 
of  which  is  Eubcea,  separated  from  the  mainland  by 
the  nari'ow  strait  of  Euripus. 

Salamis  and  -ZEgina  are  small  islands  south  of  Attica, 
in  the  Saronic  gulf.  Cythera  is  south  of  Laconia,  in 
the  Laconic  gulf.  Corcyra,  Leucas,  Cephalleuia  (or 
Samos),  Ithaca,  and  Zacynthus  are  west  of  Greece  in 
the  Ionian  sea.  In  the  iEgean  sea  are  many  important 
islands,  of  which  we  shall  mention  only  a  few.  Lesbos, 
Chios,  Samos,  Rhodos,  Cos,  (Naxos,  Paros,  Delos),* 
Scyros,  Lemnos,  Thasos,  and  Tenedos. 

III.  Greece  is  a  very  mountainous  country.  The 
Cambunian  range  bounds  it  on  the  north ;  the  range 
of  Pindus  separates  Thessalia  from  Epeirus.  This  range 
runs  with  some  interruptions  through  Central  Greece 
to  Sunium,  the  southern  promontory  of  Attica.  The 
highest  peaks  among  these  ranges  are  Olympus  (nearly 
10,000  feet  high),  Ossa,  Pelion,  Othrys,  (Eta,  Parnas- 
BUS  (8,000  feet).  Helicon  (sacred  to  Apollo  and  the 
Muses),  Cithajron,  Pames,  Pentelicus,  and  Hymettus. 

Of  the  numerous  ranges  in  the  Peloponnesus,  we 
shall  only  mention  Taygetus  and  Parnon ;  the  former 
separating  Laconia  from  Messenia,  the  latter  running 
parallel  to  it  further  east.  Cyllene,  in  Arcadiji,  is  a 
high  peak,  rising  more  than  8,000  feet. 

rV.  Owing  to  the  numerous  mountains,  there  are  but 
few  plains  in  Greece.  The  greater  portion  of  Thessalia 
is  a  vast  plain  hemmed  in  by  mountain  ranges,  and 
drained  by  the  single  river  Peneius.    In  Boeotia  there 

•  » 

i  Beloiigin*;:  to  the  Cyclades. 


I 


I 


are  two  large  plains :  one  the  marshy  plain  of  Cephissus, 
much  of  which  is  occupied  by  Lake  Copais  (in  the 
summer  the  gi*eater  part  of  this  is  dry,  and  becomes 
a  green  meadow,  in  which  cattle  are  pastured) ;  and 
the  other,  the  plain  watered  by  the  river  Asopus, 
on  tlie  verge  of  which  stood  Thebes,  Thespian,  and 
PIata?(e. 

Attica  has  three  plains:  that  of  Eleusis,  adjoining  the 
city  of  the  same  name ;  that  of  Athens ;  and  that  of 
Marathon. 

In  western  and  southern  Peloponnesus  are  the  low- 
lands of  Elis,  watered  by  the  rivers  Peneius  and  Al- 
pheius ;  also,  the  plain  about  Sparta,  watered  by  the 
Eurotas  (beautiful  stream),  and  the  high  upland  plains 
about  Tegea,  Mantineia,  and  Orchomcnos  in  Arcadia, 
and  lastly  the  fertile  plain  of  Argolis. 

V.  The  rivers  of  Greece  are  numerous,  but  of  small 
volume,  the  majority  being  little  more  than  winter 
torrents,  carrying  little  or  no  water  in  the  summer  time. 

The  largest  of  these  streams  is  the  Achelous,  which 
rises  in  Mount  Pindus  and  flows  southward,  forming 
the  boundary  between  Acarnania  and  -^tolia,  an<i 
empties  into  the  Ionian  sea.  It  is  about  130  miles  in 
length.  The  chief  river  of  Thessalia  is  the  Peneius, 
which  also  rises  in  Mount  Pindus,  and  after  receiving 
ma!iy  tributaries,  forces  its  way  through  the  vale  of 
Tompe,  between  Mounts  Ossa  and  Olympus,  into  the 
Thermaic  gulf. 

The  Alpheius  is  the  largest  river  in  the  Peloponnesus, 
rising  in  the  south-east  of  Arcadia,  flowing  through 
Arcadia  and  Elis,  and  emptying  into  the  Ionian  sea. 
In  some  parts  of  its  course  it  flows  underground. 

Among  secondary  streams  are  the  Cephissus  and 


14 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  GREECE. 


COLONIES. 


15 


Asopus  in  Bceotia,  the  Peneius  in  El  is,  the  Eurotas  iu 
Laconia,  the  Cephissus  and  Ilissus  in  Attica. 

VI.  The  lakes  of  Greece  are  numerous,  but  not  re- 
markable. 

The  largest  is  Copais  in  Bceotia  (for  description  see 
Sec.  IV.). 

VII.  Of  the  countries  of  Greece,  we  shall  examine 
more  particularly,  Ba3otia,  Attica,  Laconia,  Arcadia, 
and  Argolis. 

Bceotia  is  generally  flat  and  marshy,  but  contains  the 
mountain  range  of  Helicon  on  the  south,  and  lolly  hills 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country.  Lake  Copais  covers 
an  area  of  forty-one  square  miles.  .The  chief  rivera  are 
the  Cephissus  and  Asopus. 

Bceotia  was  noted  for  the  number  of  its  towns.  The 
chief  of  these  was  Thebes;  but  the  following  were 
important,  viz.,  Orchomenos,  Thespia),  Tanagra,  Leuc- 
tra,  and  Plata3a3. 

Attica  is  a  mountainous  and  infertile  country. 
Mounts  Cithajron,  Parnes,  and  Phelleus  form  a  con- 
tinuous range,  running  about  east  and  west;  in  the 
south  are  3Iounts  Kerata,  ^galeos,  Pentelicus,  and 
Ilymettus.  Athens  (Atheme)  was  the  only  city  of 
importance.  Its  rivers,  the  Cephissus,  Ilissus,  and 
Charadrus,  are  mere  torrent  courses. 

Laconia  consists  mainly  of  a  single  narrow  valley, 
that  of  the  Eurotas,  enclosed  between  two  lofty  moun- 
tain ranges,  those  of  Parnon  and  Taygetus.  Sparta, 
its  capital,  was  situated  on  the  Eurotas,  about  twenty 
miles  from  the  sea.  The  other  towns  were  unim 
portant. 

Arcadia  has  by  far  the  greater  part  of  its  area  cov- 
ered by  mountains  and  narrow  but  fertile  valleys.     Im- 


portant  cities    were  numerous,  as  Mantineia,  Tegea, 
Orchomenos,  and  Megalopolis. 

Argolis  contains  a  large  and  rich  plain  at  the  head 
of  the  Argolio  gulf.  Its  capital  was,  in  early  times, 
MyceuaB ;  afterwards  Argos.  Tiryns  was  an  ancient 
city.     Troezen  was  in  the  eastern  part,  near  the  coast. 

Colonies. 

The  country  which  we  call  Greece  was  known  to  the 
Greeks  themselves  only  as  Hellas.  And  by  Hellas 
they  meant  not  only  Greece  proper,  as  described  above, 
but  also  any  places  where  Greek  settlers  had  planted 
colonies. 

Of  these  colonies,  among  the  most  flourishing  were 
those  planted  on  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
the  islan<l8  adjacent.  They  were  divided  into  three 
classes,  viz.,  iEolic,  Ionic,  and  Doric,  according  as  their 
founders  were  -Cohans,  lonians,  or  Dorians.  The 
-^olic  cities  occupied  the  northern  part  of  the  coast, 
including  the  islands  of  Lesbos  and  Tenedos.  Mytileae 
was  the  chief  city.  The  Ionic  cities  were  situated 
mostly  between  the  rivei*s  Ilermus  and  MoBander;  also 
the  islands  of  Chios  and  Samos  were  settled  by  lonians. 
The  chief  cities  were  Ephesus,  Colophon,  Clazomende, 
Miletus,  Chios,  and  Samos.  The  Doric  cities  were  on 
the  southern  coast,  with  the  islands  of  Rhodos  and 
Cos.  Halicarnassus  (birthplace  of  Herodotus)  and 
Cnidus  were  large  places. 

In  the  southern  part  of  Italy,  many*  colonies  were 
early  established  by  the  Greeks.      These  became   so 

*  Tarentum,  Metapontum,  Sybaris,  Tliurii,  Croton,  Locri  Epi- 
zephjrii,  Ilhcgium,  Elea,  and  Cumae. 


I 


ili 


COLONIES. 


rich  and  powciful  that  all  of  Italy,  from  Cumge  on  the 
one  side,  and  Tarentum  on  the  otlier,  was  called  Magna 
Graecia. 

On  the  southern  coast  of  Gaul,  MassUia  (Mareeilles) 
was  founded  about  600  B.C.  In  Sicily,  Syracuse  and 
Agrigentum  were  prosperous  colonies. 

Byzantium  (Constantinople),  in  Thrace,  was  a  colony 
of  the  Megarians. 

Cyrene,  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  was  founded 
in  the  seventh  century  b.c. 

Amphipolia  and  Eion  (northern  coast  of  the  ^gean) 
and  Potideea  (on  Pallene)  were  founded  in  later  times, 
the  latter  by  the  Corinthians,  the  two  former  by  the 
Athenians. 


I 


CHAPTER  n. 

Sparta  from  the  Time  of  Lycurgus  down  to 

500  B.C. 

Lycurgus  was  the  real  founder  of  the  Spartan  state. 
It  is  uncertain  when  he  lived,  but  probably  as  early  as 

825  B.C. 

Not  satisfied  with  the  management  of  public  affairs 
in  his  native  city,  he  travelled  in  foreign  countries, 
for  the  purpose  of  making  himself  familiar  with  different 
forms  of  government.  He  is  said  to  have  made  a 
special  study  of  the  Constitution  of  Crete,  an  island 
famous  for  its  institutions  and  laws.^  Upon  his  return 
he  found  the  state  full  of  dissensions  and  disputes. 
The  Spartans  all  looked  to  him  as  the  only  person  fit 
to  remodel  the  government  and  frame  a  new  constitu- 
tion. Lycurgus  accepted  the  task,  and,  when  it  was 
finished,  called  together  the  people,  and  required  of 
them  a  promise  to  make  no  change  in  his  laws  until  his 
return  from  a  journey,  which  he  was  about  to  make. 

He  never  returned,  but  is  said  to  have  starved  him- 
self to  death,  in  order  that  his  fellow-citizens  might 
always  be  bound  by  their  oath. 

The  Lycurgean  Constitution 

assigned  the  duty  of  governing  to;  — 

1.  Two  hereditary  Kings,  whose  power  was  limited. 
They  presided  over  the  Senate,  but  had  no  more  influ- 

1  See  under  Minos,  page  5. 


18         THE  LYCURGEAN  CONSTITUTION^ 

ence  than  other  members.  They  were  commanders* 
in  war;  and  at  such  times,  when  outside  of*  Laconia, 
their  power  was  absohite.  They  possessed  large  royal 
domains  in  many  of  the  townships  in  Laconia.  They 
received  frequent  presents;  and  their  table  was  sup- 
ported  at  the  public  expense.  They  were  also  accom- 
panied  by  a  body-guard  of  100  men. 

2.  Five  Ephors,  elected  annually  by  the  people, 
whose  special  duty  was  to  see  that  the  laws  of  Lycur- 
gus  were  enforced,  to  scrutinize  the  conduct  of  all 
magistrates,  even  that  of  the  kings,  and  to  watch  over 
the  manners  and  morals  of  the  people.  Their  power 
was  supreme,  and  they  did  not  hesitate  to  use  it. 

3.  The  Senate,  or  CouncU  of  Elders,  consisting  of 
thirty  members,  none  of  whom  could  be  less  than  sixty 
years  of  age,  and  who  held  their  office  for  life. 

It  was  their  duty  to  sit  in  judgment  over  all  cases 
involving  the  life  of  a  Spartan  citizen.  No  measure 
could  be  discussed  in  the  Popular  Assembly  until  it  had 
first  passed  through  the  Senate. 

4.  The  Popular  Assembly,  composed  of  all  free 
citizens  of  the  age  of  thirty  and  upward.  Meetings 
were  held  at  every  full  moon.  It  had  the  power  of 
declaring  war  and  making  peace ;  of  choosing  higher 
offices,  and  rejecting  or  approving  the  measures  of°the 
Senate. 

The  population  of  Laconia  was  divided  into  three 
orders,  —  Spartans,  Perioeci,  and  Helots.  The  first  of 
the  three  lived  in  Sparta  itself,  and  were  alone  eligible 
to  offices  of  the  state.  The  most  fertile  portions  of 
Laconia  belonged  to  them,  and  they  were  maintained 

1  At  first  the  kings  commanded  together,  but  afterwards  one  at 
a  time. 


THE  LYCURGEAN  CONSTITUTION. 


19 


,,  ♦ 


i 


by  the  produce  of  the  land,  which  was  tilled  not  by 
themselves  (for  it  was  considered  disgraceful  for  a 
Sparta--  to  peiform  manual  labor),  but  by  the  Helots, 
who  paid  to  them  a  certain  proportion  of  the  crops, 
sometimes  even  as  much  as  one  half. 

The  PericBci,  or  freemen,  were  the  ancient  Achaean 
inhabitants  of  Laconia,  who  had  been  conquered  at  the 
Dorian  Invasion.^  They  were  much  more  numerous 
than  the  Spartans,  and  cultivated  the  less  fertile  lands 
of  the  mountains. 

They  also  worked  the  stone  quarries  and  mines  on 
Mount  Taygetus,  and  supplied  the  market  of  Sparta 
with  iron  implements,  building  materials,  &c.  They 
had  no  influence  or  control  in  public  aifairs,  and  were 
in  a  position  greatly  inferior  to  that  of  the  Spartans. 

The  Helots  were  serfs  residing  on  the  fields  of  the 
Spartans,  and  were  obliged  to  pay  a  portion  of  the 
produce  to  their  masters. 

They  could  not  be  sold  out  of  the  country,  being 
considered  the  property  not  of  the  master,  but  of  the 
state,  which  they  served,  in  the  time  of  war,  as  light- 
armed  troops,  each  of  the  Spartans  being  accompanied 
by  one  or  more  of  them.  If  they  showed  unusual 
bravery,  they  were  rewarded  with  freedom. 

They  were  generally  courag'^ous  and  energetic ;  and, 
as  their  numbers  increased,  the  Spartans  began  to  fear 
them,  and  devised  many  cruel  means  of  getting  rid  of 
them.    At  one  time  2,000  were  secretly  put  to  death. 

The  Lycurgean  Discipline 

aimed  to  educate  in  the  Spartans  those  qualities  which 
fit  men  best  for  war.    According  to  it,  "  the  chief  end 

*  See  page  6,  under  Heracleidas. 


/ 
/ 


20 


THE  LYCURGEAN  DISCIPLINE. 


THE  FIRST  MESSENIAN  WAR. 


21 


of  man  was  to  live  on  black  broth  at  home,  to  march 
about  in  heavy  armor,  to  fight  with  or  without  cause, 
to  beat  or  kill  the  Helots,  and  to  die  on  the  field  of 
battle."  To  bring  about  this  desired  result,  all  male 
children,  even  at  birth,  were  examined  in  public,  and, 
if  found  deformed  in  any  way,  were  exposed  on  Mount 
Taygetus  to  die. 

At  the  age  of  seven,  all  males  were  removed  from 
home,  and  taken  in  charge  by  the  state.  Their  heads 
were  shaved,  they  went  barefoot,  and  played  naked. 

At  the  age   of  twelve,  they  were  divided  up  into 
troops,  and  intrusted  to  the  special  care  of  competent 
trainers.    The  youths  were  not  only  expected  to  be 
adepts  in  all  gymnastic  exercises,  but  to  endure   all 
sorts  of  hardships  without  a  murmur.     To  be  whipped 
severely  at  the  altar  was  a  common  mode  of  testing 
their  endurance.    Many  were  sent  on  stealing  expedi- 
tions, and,  if  caught,  were  punished ;  not  because  they 
had  been  stealing,  but  because  they  lacked  cunning 
enough  to  conceal  their  theft.    Their  meals  were  all 
taken    at   a   common    table,   and    the    principal    dish 
served  was  "  black  broth,"  which  required  a  ravenous 
appetite  to  be  palatable.     When  the  Spartans  became 
men,  this  discipline  was  not  relaxed.     Their  days  were 
spent  in  military  drill,  their  nights  in  the  barracks. 
The  family  seemed  to  be  nothing,  the  state  every  thing. 
All  interests  must  be  subservient  to  the  state^  no  sac- 
rifice was  too  great  for  the  state.     Not  only  was  this 
system  of  training  demanded  of  the  youths  and  men  of 
Sparta,  but  the  maidens  also  were  expected  to  exercise 
daily   in   running,   wrestling,   and  boxing,   that   they 
might  be  the  better  fitted  to  become  mothers  of  a 
gtrong  and  hardy  race. 


The  Spartan  never  dreamed  of  any  literary  educa- 
tion, and  was  even  averse  to  social  or  commercial  inter- 
course with  other  nations.  He  was  obliged  to  use  iron 
money,  silver  and  gold  being  a  forbidden  coin ;  and,  if  a 
stranger  ventured  to  enter  the  city,  he  was  treated  with 
marked  coolness;  in  fact,  all  social  intercourse,  the 
delights  of  literatuve,  family  ties,  and  every  thing  that 
has  charms  to  a  civilized  people  was  sacrificed. 

The  results  of  this  discipline  were  that  the  Spartans 
became  warriors  unequalled  by  any  in  Greece.  Their 
desire  for  war  was  irresistible,  and  engendered  a  passion 
for  foreign  conquest.  Thus  we  see  them  early  looking 
with  covetous  eyes  upon  Messenia,  a  country  of  woody 
valleys  and  well-watered  plains,  which  were  filmed  for 
the  number  and  beauty  of  their  herds  and  flocks,  and 
for  the  variety  of  their  shrubs  and  fruit-trees.  The 
LacedaBmonians^  began  the 

First  Messenian  War  (743-724  b.c.) 

by  surprising  Ampheia,  a  border  town  of  Messenia,  and 
murdering  its  defenders.  A  long  struggle  then  followed 
with  varying  success.  Finally  the  Messenians  were  so 
weakened  that  they  were  obliged  to  take  refuge  on  the 
fortified  mountain  of  Ithome.  Their  king  Aristodemus 
offered  in  sacrifice  his  own  daughter  to  appease  the 
WTath  of  the  gods,  but  to  no  purpose.  The  Spartan 
soldiers  still  pressed  them,  until  in  the  twentieth  year 
of  the  war  Ithome  was  abandoned,  and  those  of  the 
inhabitants  who  did  not  flee  to  Arcadia  or  Eleusis  were 
completely  subjugated. 

*  Sparta  was  sometimes  called  Lacedaemon,  and  its  inhabitants 
Lacedaemonians. 


/ 


^} 


22 


THE  SECOND  MESSENIAN   WAR. 


J' 


THE  SECOND  MESSENIAN  WAR, 


23 


After  bearing  the  yoke  38  years,  the  Messenians  again 
took  up  arms. 

The  Second  Messenian  War  (685-668  b.c.) 

centres  around  one  figure,  —  that  of  Aristomenes,  the 
Achilles  of  the  Messenians.  He  is  their  champion  in 
the  three  great  battles  of  this  war.  He  often  pene- 
trates into  Laconia,  suqmsing  its  towns;  and  even 
enters  Sparta  one  night  and  hangs  up  his  shield,  as  a 
token  of  defiance,  in  one  of  the  tem})les.  Three  times 
he  is  taken  prisoner.  Twice  he  manages  to  escaj)o 
before  he  reaches  Sparta;  the  third  time  he  is  thrown 
(with  fifty  of  his  countrymen)  into  a  deep  cave  in 
Mount  Taygetus.  He  alone  is  not  killed  by  the  fall ; 
and,  shortly  afterwards,  seeing  a  fox  creeping  about 
among  the  dead  bodies  of  his  companions,  he  seizes  it 
by  the  tail,  and  clinging  to  it  finally  finds  an  opening 
to  which  the  fox  comes  in  his  struggles  to  escape.  This 
opening  Aristomenes  enlarges  until  he  can  crawl  out 
himself.  Thus  he  escapes  a  third  time  from  his 
enemies. 

The  stronghold  of  the  Messenians  in  this  war  was 
Eira,  a  fortified  mountain  in  the  north-western  part  of 
Messenia.  At  this  stronghold  Aristomenes  was  finally 
compelled  to  concentrate  his  forces,  and  here  he  main- 
tained an  obstinate  resistance  for  eleven  years.  At 
length,  unable  to  hold  out  any  longer,  he,  with  his  sons, 
forced  his  way  through  the  assailants,  and  left  the 
country.  The  rest  of  his  life  was  passed  in  Rhodes, 
where  he  lived  with  his  son-in-law.  Those  Messenians 
who  did  not  emigrate  to  other  countries  were  reduced 
to  the  condition  of  seifs  (Helots). 

The  person  who  animated  the  Spartans  most  during 


/ 


>' 


this  war  was  the  poet  Tyrtseus,  a  native  of  Attica.  He 
composed  songs  for  the  troops  on  the  march  and  during 
the  charge.  The  power  of  his  poetry  was  felt  by  all, 
and  served  as  well  to  quiet  the  discontents  of  the 
mutinous  as  to  cheer  the  heart  and  exhilarate  the  sj^irit 
of  the  discouraged  warrior. 

Sparta  could  not  rest  satisfied  with  this  victory. 
Arcadia  now  attracted  her  attention.  The  Arcadians 
had  assisted  the  Messenians  in  the  late  war,  and  this 
was  a  good  excuse  for  an  attack  upon  their  territory. 
This  contest  was  prolonged  for  many  years.  The 
Spartans  finally  reduced  the  Arcadians  to  the  state  of 
subject-allies. 

The  power  of  Argos  ^  also  was  broken,  so  that  about 
600  B.C.  Sparta  controlled  nearly  two-thirds  of  the 
Peloponnesus. 

*  At  the  time  of  Lycurgus,  Argos  was  the  most  powerful  city  in 
the  Peloponnesus.  She  was  at  the  head  of  a  strong  confederation 
of  Doric  cities^  and  had  colonies  established  in  various  localities. 


) 


A  THENS, 


25 


CHAPTER  in. 

Athens  from  the  Earliest  Times  down  to 

500  B.C. 

The  earliest  govennnent  of  Athens  was  a  monarchy. 
There  were  seventeen  kings  in  all,  the  last  of  whom 
was  Codrus.^  Medon,  the  son  of  Codrus,  succeeded 
his  father  as  Archon  (ruler)  for  life.  Thirteen  life- 
Archons  held  office  from  1050  to  752  B.C. 

A  change  was  now  made  in  the  duration  of  the 
Archonship  to  this  effect,  that  the  Archon  held  his  office 
for  ten  years  instead  of  for  life.  This  change  was 
brought  about  by  the  Eupatridae  (nobles).  There  were 
seven  decennial  Archons,  who  governed  the  state  down 
to  C83  B.C.  Again  the  Eupatridae  changed  the  law,  and 
instead  of  choosing  one  of  their  number  to  be  Archon 
for  ten  years,  they  chose  nine  Archons,  who  were  to 
hold  office  only  one  year. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  goveniment  of  Athens  devel- 
oped gradually  from  a  Monarchy  into  an  Oligarchy,  or 
the  government  of  a  few,  who  were  chosen  from  the 
Eupatridae.  But  the  common  people  soon  grew  weary 
of  this  state  of  things.  They  were  pei-secuted  by  the 
nobles,  and  many  were  sold  as  slaves  to  pay  the  debts 
they  owed  their  oppressors.  A  code  of  written  laws 
was  demanded,  for  up  to  this  time  the  laws  had  been 
traditional,  and  the  interpretation  of  them  had  been  in 
tlie  hands  of  the  EupatridaB. 

^  See  lotroduction,  p.  2. 


7 


Draco  was  appointed  to  draw  up  this  code,  624  B.C. 
He  made  every  offence  punishable  by  death,  so  that 
his  laws  were  called  the  "bloody  laws"  of  Draco. 
They  naturally  did  not  give  satisfaction ;  and  Solon, 
one  of  the  seven  wise  men,  was  asked  (594  B.C.)  to 
frame  a  new  constitution  for  Athens.  Its  main  object 
was  to  give  the  common  people  a  greater  freedom  from 
the  oppression  of  the  rich  and  the  nobles.  This  was 
effected  in  part  by  dividing  the  people  hito  four  classes, 
according:  to  the  amount  of  their  income.  The  first 
class  included  those  whose  annual  income  equalled  or 
exceeded  the  value  of  500  medimni*  of  corn.  The 
second  class  included  those  whose  annual  income 
ranged  between  500  and  300  medimni.  The  third 
class  were  those  whose  income  was  between  300  and 
200  medimni.  The  fourth  and  lowest  class  included 
all  whose  income  fell  below  200  medimni.^ 

The  first  three  classes  were  taxed  according  to  the 
amount  of  their  property,  the  fourth  class  was  free 
from  taxes,  but  also  could  hold  no  public  office.  Only 
membei-s  of  the  first  class  could  be  Archons. 

Solon  also  instituted  a  Council  of  400,  to  be  elected 
annually  by  the  free  votes  of  all  the  citizens. 

The  Public  Assembly,  or  Ecclesia,  composed  of  all 
Athenians,  elected  the  Archons  and  higher  offices,  and 
accepted  or  rejected  all  *  the  laws  and  decrees  proposed 
by  the  Council  of  400. 

*  A  medimnus  was  about  one  and  a  half  bushels. 

'  The  first  class  were  called  tlie  Pentacosiomedimni. 
The  second  class  were  called  the  Hippeis  (Knights). 
The  third  class  were  called  the  ZeugitaD. 
The  fourth  class  were  called  the  Thetes. 

•  Tliis  was  the  first  step  towards  an  Athenian  democracy,  after- 
wards developed  and  perfected  hy  Cleisthenes. 

2 


26 


THE  PEISISTRATIDJE. 


The  Senate  or  Council  of  the  Areiopagus  (so  called 
because  it  met  on  Mars'  Hill)  was  the  highest  tribunal 
in  the  state,  and  "  had  general  supervision  of  the  laws, 
and  exercised  a  censorial  power  over  the  morals  and 
occupations  of  the  citizens." 

The  Areiopagus  judged  cases  of  murder,  and  other 
crimes  of  a  heinous  character. 

As  soon  as  Solon's  laws  went  into  operation,  quarrels 
began  to  arise  between  the  different  classes.  Some 
B:iid  he  had  gone  too  far,  others  not  far  enough.  They 
divided  into  three  factions.  A  man  by  the  name  of 
PeisistratuB  pretended  to  support  the  faction  repre- 
sented by  the  poor  class,  and  gained  the  mastery  over 
the  others;  but,  after  he  had  worked  into  favor  with 
the  common  people  and  obtained  much  power  and 
influence,  he  threw  off"  his  mask  and  declared  himself 
despot  of  Athens,  5G0  B.C.  This  is  the  beginning  of 
the  rule  of  the  Peisistratidae,  which  lasted  until  610 

B.C. 

Peisistratus  himself  ruled  with  some  interruptions 
until  527  b.c.  He  governed  the  people  wisely  and 
kindly.  Under  him  Athens  was  prosperous.  He 
founded  a  libraiy,  and  made  it  public,  and  was  the 
first  who  collected  the  poems  of  Homer. 

Peisistratus  left  the  government  to  his  two  sons,  Hip- 
pias  and  Hipparchus,  who  ruled  for  some  years  in  peace 
and  harmony  with  the  people. 

But  in  514  b.c.  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against  them 
by  two  young  men,  Harmodius  and  Aristogeiton  ;  the 
former  of  whom  was  enraged  with  Hippias,  on  account 
of  an  insult  offered  by  him  to  his  sister.  This  con- 
spiracy succeeded  in  part;  viz.,  in  the  assassination  of 
Hipparchus. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CLEISTHENES,        27 

After  the  murder  of  his  brother,  Hippias  changed 
the  character  of  his  rule  from  mildness  to  cruelty,  and 
in  four  years  (510  B.C.)  he  became  so  unpopular  that 
he  was  expelled  from  the  city.  He  afterwards  repaired 
to  the  court  of  Darius,  hoping  to  be  restored  to  his 
native  country  by  the  aid  of  the  Persians.  He  accom- 
panied them  in  their  first  invasion  of  Greece,  and  was 
killed  on  the  plains  of  Marathon,  490  b.c. 

Cleisthenes  was  now  (510  B.C.)  the  head  man  at 
Athens.  He  belonged  to  the  noble  fixmily  of  the  Alc- 
mseonidae,  who  had  been  opposed  to  the  Peisistratidae. 
He  introduced  many  reforms  into  the  constitution  in 
favor  of  the  common  people,  and  under  him  the  Athe- 
nian government  became  really  a  democracy,  —  that 
is,  a  government  of  the  people ;  whereas  the  govern- 
ment of  Sparta  was  an  aristocracy,  —  that  is,  a  govern- 
ment of  the  "best,"  or  the  nobles. 

Tile  Constitution  of  Cleisthenes 

tended  to  a  more  popular  government. 

The  citizens  were  divided  into  ten  tribes  (each  tribe 
including  ten  towns  —  demes— with   their   adjacent 

territory). 

Cleisthenes  increased  the  council  of  400  to  500,  and 
called  it  the  Boule.  "Fifty  were  drawn  from  each  tribe. 
All  citizens  in  full  standing,  of  thirty  years  of  age  and 
upward,  could  be  drawn  into  the  Boule. 

"The  business  of  this  body  was  to  prepare  the  ques- 
tions that  were  to  come  before  the  Ecclesia.  Tliey  also 
controlled  the  finances,  and  received  foreign  ministers." 

The  most  important  tribunal  introduced  by  Cleis- 
thenes was  the  HeUaea,  a  court  of  law,  in  which  the 
influence  of  the  people  was  deeply  felt.    Its  members 


28 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CLEISTIIENES. 


were  drawn  by  lot  from  the  ten  tribes,  each  of  which  fur- 
nished 600.  The  courts  were  held  in  eight  or  ten 
different  places. 

"The  parties  who  had  cases  to  be  tried  apj)eared 
before  them  and  argued  their  cause.  When  the  verdict 
was  to  be  rendered,  a  herald  called  upon  all  who 
thought  the  accused  guilty  to  hold  up  their  hands, 
which  were  counted;  then  those  who  thought  him 
innocent  did  the  same ;  and  the  votes  of  the  majority 
decided  the  case." 

Cleisthenes  also  first  introduced  Ostracism.  Its  pur- 
pose was  "  to  remove  from  the  city  for  a  definite  time 
those  who  appeared  to  be  superior  to  their  fellow- 
citizens,  by  reason  of  their  wealth,  the  number  of  their 
friends,  or  any  other  means  of  influence."  It  applied 
to  cases  where  no  crime  was  committed,  and  was  no 
personal  disgrace. 

We  have  come  now  (500  B.C.)  to  an  era  in  Greek 
history,  and  it  will  be  well  to  pause  for  a  moment  and 
review  our  work.  In  Sparta  we  have  the  reforms  of 
LycurguB  to  remember;  the  Messenian  wars,  and 
Sparta's  gradual  increase  in  power,  until  at  this  time 
she  controlled  two-thirds  of  the  Peloponnesus.  In 
Athens  we  have  Draco,  Solon,  Peisistratus,  Hippias, 
Hipparchus,  Harmodius,  Aristogeiton,  and  Cleisthenes, 
the  fi'iend  of  the  common  people. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


The  Persians  and  tue  First  Persian  Invasion. 


Marathon,  September  12,  490  b.c. 

Before  proceeding  further  in  our  Greek  history, 
we  will  turn  back  and  examine  the  early  history  of 
the  Persians,  since  they  had  so  much  influence  upon 
Greece. 

The  Persian  empire  was  founded  by  Cyrus  I.  in  558 
B.a  .  Previously  to  this,  the  nation  was  dependent  upon 
the  Medes ;  but  Cyrus,  who  was  very  ambitious,  saw 
that  the  power  of  the  Medes  was  merely  a  name  and 
not  a  reality,  weakened  as  they  were  by  high  and  luxu- 
rious living.  So  the  Pei-sians,  headed  by  him,  re- 
volted; and  instead  of  being  dependent  upon  the 
Medes,  the  scales  were  turned,  and  the  Medes  were 
conquered  and  subdued  by  the  Persians.  At  the  death 
of  Cyrus,  529  b.c,  the  Persian  empire  included  all  of 
Asia  west  of  the  Euphrates ;  also  Lydia,  which  had 
been  governed  by  Crcesus  (said  to  have  been  the  richest 
monarch  in  the  world),  and  the  Greek  cities  on  the 
western  coast  of  Asia  Minor. 

Cyrus  left  his  vast  kingdom  to  his  son  Cambyses,  who 
reigned  from  529  to  522  b.c. 

He  conquered  Egypt.  At  his  death  the  kingdom 
fell  to  Darius  I.,  who  ruled  from  521  to  486  B.C.  He 
was  the  greatest  of  Persian  monarchs.    He  had  a  large 


80 


THE  IONIC  REVOLT. 


army  of  over  1,000,000  troops,  stationed  iu  different 
parts  of  his  kingdom,  and  his  navy  amounted  to  1,000 
ships. 

lie  extended  his  empire  by  the  subjugation  of 
Scythia,  508  ij.c.  A  few  years  later  (500  B.C.)  tho 
ambitious  designs  of  Darius  were  inten*upted  by  the 
revolt  of  the  Ionic  cities  in  Asia  Minor,  led  by  Miletus. 
These  cities  obtained  the  aid  of  Athens  and  Eretria  (:i 
city  on  the  island  of  Eubcea).  They  collected  their 
forces  at  Ephesus,  and  marched  straight  for  Sardis,  tho 
capital  of  Lydia. 

The  city  was  captured  (499  b.c.)  and  burned  to  tho 
ground. 

Darius  took  active  measures  to  put  down  this  revolt; 
but,  when  he  began  to  get  the  better  of  the  Ionic  cities 
in  Asia  Minor,  Athens  and  Eretria  witlidrew  their 
forces  and  went  home.  As  soon  as  he  had  subdued 
the  Ionic  cities,  Darius  turned  his  attention  towards 
Greece,  and  swore  vengeance  upon  the  peoi)le  who  had 
dared  to  aid  his  rebellious  subjects.  Active  prejiara- 
tions  were  immediately  made  to  fit  out  an  expedition. 
Mardonius,  a  general  of  Darius,  was  sent  out  with  a 
large  naval  force  in  493  b.c.  ;  but  the  wliole  fleet  was 
disabled  in  a  stonn  off  Mount  Athos,  a  dancrerous 
promontory  in  Chalcidice. 

Darius  was  not  discouraged  by  this  failure.  lie  spent 
the  next  two  years  in  fitting  out  a  second  expedition, 
placed  under  the  joint  command  of  Datis  and  Arta- 
phernes. 

The  fleet  sailed  from  the  bay  of  Issus,  along  the 
coast  of  Asia  Minor,  to  Samos.  From  here  it  directed 
its  course  to  Naxos,  to  punish  the  bold  islanders  for  not 
having  immediately  submitted.    The  city  was  burned 


FIRST  PERSIAN  INVASION 


31 


to  the  ground,  and  the  inhabitants  made  slaves.  From 
Naxos  the  fleet  sailed  to  Deles,  where  the  Persians 
offered  sacrifices  to  the  presiding  divinities^  of  the 
island. 

Eretria  was  the  next  place  to  which  the  Persians 
sailed.  For  six  days  they  attempted  to  storm  the  walls, 
but  in  vain.  Where  force  was  of  no  avail,  treason  suc- 
ceeded. Tlie  upper  classes  of  the  city  sympathized  with 
the  besiegers  and  opened  the  gates.  The  city  received 
no  more  mercy  than  Naxos,  and  the  citizens  were 
reduced  to  slavery.  The  Persians  were  elated.  Their 
success  thus  far  had  been  uninterrupted.  Why  should 
they  not  meet  with  equal  good  fortune  at  Athens  ?  Tlie 
nearest  landing  place  in  Attica  was  at  Marathon,  a 
plain  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Attica  (22  miles  N.  E.  of 
Athens)  of  about  six  miles  in  length,  and  from  three 
miles  to  one  and  one-half  miles  in  breadth,  surrounded 
on  all  sides,  except  towards  the  sea,  by  high  rocky  hills. 
Hippias,  who  accompanied  the  Persians,  pointed  out 
this  plain,  and  stated  that  it  would  afford  a  fine  oppor- 
tunity for  them  to  manoeuvre  their  cavalry.  The  whole 
Persian  force  amounted  to  110,000,  of  which  100,000 
were  infantry. 

As  soon  as  the  fall  of  Eretria  was  announced  at 
Athens,  a  courier  was  sent  to  Sparta  in  all  haste  to  ask 
for  aid.  The  Spartans  promised  it,  but  failed  to  keep 
their  promise  through  superstition,  as  it  wanted  but  a 
few  days  of  the  full  moon,  and  it  was  contrary  to  their 
custom  to  begin  a  maich  at  such  times.  So  the 
Athenians  were  compelled  to  fight  by  themselves.^  The 
Athenian  force,  numbering  10,000  infantry,  was  under 

1  ApoUo  and  Artemis  were  the  especial  guardians  of  Delos. 
•  1,000  Flataeans  joined  the  Athenians  just  before  the  battle. 


32 


MARATHON. 


the  control  of  the  ten  persons  who  alternated  in  com- 
mand, each  one  holding  the  power  for  one  day.  Mil- 
tiades,  one  of  the  ten,  was  thought  by  his  colleagues  to 
be  the  most  efficient  general,  and  was  invested  by  them 
with  supreme  command.  He  advanced  to  Marathon, 
and  drew  up  his  forces  on  the  rising  ground  above  tlie 
plain,  with  the  rear  and  both  flanks  protected  by  high 
hills. 

For  nine  days  the  armies  stood  facing  each  other 
without  moving.  On  the  morning  of  the  12th  of  Sep- 
tember, when  the  supreme  command  would  have  regu- 
larly fallen  to  him,  Miltiades  ordered  the  Athenians  to 
advance  to  the  attack.     His  forces  were  arranged  so 

o 

that  members  of  the  same  tribe  fought  side  by  side, 
thus  stimulating  and  encouraging  one  another.  The 
battle  lasted  for  many  hours.  The  Athenian  wings  were 
successful  from  the  first,  and  drove  their  opponents 
towards  the  shore.  But  the  enemy's  centre,  where  were 
massed  picked  troops,  stood  finn.  Here  the  struggle 
was  the  fiercest,  and  the  Greeks  were  repulsed.  Mil- 
tiades then  ordered  the  victorious  wings  to  return  from 
the  pursuit,  and  to  make  a  combined  attack  upon  the 
Peraian  centre  in  the  rear. 

The  Persians  were  now  speedily  routed,  and  fled  to 
their  ships,  on  which  they  embarked  and  put  out  to 
sea. 

In  this  memorable  battle  the  Athenians  lost  192; 
the  Persians,  6,400.  The  Athenian  dead  were  buried  on 
the  field  of  battle  in  a  large  imound,  which  can  bo  seen 
to  this  day. 

The  departure  of  the  Persians  was  hailed  with  great 
joy  at  Athens.  Marathon  was  ever  after  a  magic  word. 
There  was  good  reason  to  be  jjroud  of  it,  as  it  was  the 


DISGRACE  OF  MILTIADES. 


33 


fii-st  time  that  the  Greeks  had  ever  defeated  the  Persians 
in  battle.  If  the  Persians  had  conquered  at  Marathon, 
Greece  would  probably  have  become  a  Persian  prov- 
ince, and  the  destinies  of  all  Europe  might  have  been 
changed. 

MUtiades,  the  hero  of  Marathon,  was  received  at 
Athens  with  the  greatest  honor.  A  sepai-ate  monument 
was  erected  to  him  on  the  battle-field.  It  would  have 
been  fortunate  for  him  if  his  career  had  ended  here. 
The  Athenians  placed  great  confidence  in  him,  which 
he  abused;  for,  in  order  to  avenge  a  private  hatred 
against  the  inhabitants  of  Paroa,  he  asked  his  country- 
men for  a  fleet  of  seventy  ships,  without  telling  them 
the  reason  of  the  request.  The  ships  were  given  him, 
but  he  failed  in  his  attempt  to  take  the  island,  and  waa 
obliged  to  return  home  without  accomplishing  any 
thing.  The  Athenians  were  very  indignant,  and  con- 
demned him  to  pay  a  fine  of  $50,000,  the  cost  of  fitting 
out  the  fleet.  Being  unable  to  pay  this  fine,  he  was 
thrown  into  prison,  where  he  died  soon  after  from  the 
eflTects  of  a  wound  received  at  Paros.  His  son  Cimon 
paid  the  fine. 


CHAPTER  V. 

Preparations,  on  the  part  op  Athens  and  thk 
Persians,  for  the  Second  Persian  Invasion. 

Aristeides  and  Themistocles. 


Soon  after  the  battle  of  Marathon,  a  war  broke  out 
between  Athens  and  -^sjina. 

The  importance  of  this  war  was  that  it  caused  the 
Athenians  to  feel  the  necessity  of  a  large  naval  force, 
the  advantage  of  which  the  ^ginetans  had  seen  before, 
and  consequently  already  possessed  a  fine  navy. 

Ten  years  intervened  between  the  first  and  second 
Persian  invasion.  The  time  was  occupied  in  active 
preparations  on  the  part  of  the  Greeks.  Athens  espe- 
cially strengthened  her  power  by  increasing  her  navy, 
and  training  her  citizens  to  be  more  eflScient  sailors. 

Themistocles  and  Aristeides  were  the  most  distin- 
guished men  of  Athens  at  this  time.  They  were  both 
of  marked  ability,  but  forming  a  striking  contrast  to 
each  other. 

Aristeides  was  a  man  of  such  incorruptible  virtue 
that  he  was  called  the  "Just."  He  could  not  be  induced 
to  swerve  from  what  he  considered  the  path  of  duty, 
either  by  any  prospect  of  advantage  to  himself  or  the 
state.  He  was  a  little  too  rigid,  however,  in  his  adher- 
ence to  the  old  school  of  Athenians.  In  fact,  he  was 
BO  averse  to  any  modifications  in  the  customs  of  the 


ARISTEIDES  AND   THEMISTOCLES,        35 

people  that,  if  his  policy  had  been  always  followed, 
Athens  would  have  fared  very  badly.  The  youn<y 
Athenians  soon  began  to  regard  him  as  an  old  conser- 
vative. 

Themistocles,  on  the  other  hand,  was  of  much  more 
brilliant  genius.  He  belonged  to  the  new  school,  and 
was  an  advocate  of  such  changes  as  seemed  for  the 
advantage  of  the  state.  With  his  unusual  powers  of 
foresight,  with  his  energy  and  boldness  in  executing 
plans,  with  his  insight  into  the  purposes  of  the  enemy, 
and  skill  in  thwarting  them,  with  the  eloquence  of  an 
orator  at  his  command,  it  is  not  strange  that  he  became 
one  of  the  ablest  statesmen  of  Athens. 

Nevertheless  Themistocles  was  not  as  honest  as  his 
rival.  He  was  wily  and  tricky,  passionate  and  selfish, 
and  open  to  bribery. 

As  an  advocate  of  progress,  he  became  very  popular, 
and  of  course  was  a  bitter  rival  of  Aristeides,  whose 
ostracism  he  was  instrumental  in  bringing  about  in 
482  B.O. 

There  was  at  this  time  a  large  surplus  in  the  treasury, 
arising  from  the  produce  of  valuable  silver  mines  at 
Mount  Laurium,  in  south-eastern  Attica.  Themis- 
tocles persuaded  the  Athenians  to  spend  this  surplus 
on  a  fleet  of  200  ships,  and  also  to  pass  a  decree  that 
twenty  new  ships  should  be  built  every  year. 

The  defeat  of  the  Persians  at  Marathon  only  made 
Darius  the  more  eager  to  punish  Athens.  He  now  re- 
solved to  collect  all  tht  forces  of  his  empire  and  march 
against  the  city.  But  in  the  midst  of  his  preparations 
he  died,  486  b.c. 

Xerxes  succeeded  to  the  throne.  He  was  not  a  war- 
like prince  like  his  father,  but  eflfeminate  and  fond  of 


36 


PREPARATIONS  OF  XERXES. 


ease.  He  would  have  given  up  the  preparations  already 
begun  against  Greece,  bad  not  his  general,  Mardonius, 
been  pressing  in  his  desire  to  wipe  out  the  disgrace  of 
Marathon. 

Xerxes  spent  four  years  in  collecting  an  immense 
army,  made  up  of  forty-six  different  nations,  amounting 
to  2,000,000  men.  His  fleet  consisted  of  1,200  triremes 
and  3,000  smaller  vessels,  manned  by  500,000  men. 
While  he  was  collecting  these  forces,  he  had  a  bridge 
built  across  the  Hellespont,  where  it  was  one  mile  wide, 
between  Abydos  and  Sestos. 

We  saw  in  a  previous  chapter  that  a  fleet  of  the 
Persians  had  been  destroyed  by  a  stoi-m  off  Mount 
Athos.  To  avoid  this  dangerous  promontory,  Xerxes 
ordered  a  canal  to  be  built  through  the  isthmus  con- 
necting Mount  Athos  and  the  mainland.  This  canal 
was  1  1-2  miles  long,  and  wide  enough  for  two  triremes 
to  go  abreast.  Traces  of  it  can  be  seen  at  the  present 
time. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
The  Second  Persian  Invasion". 

THEEMOPYLfi,  July,  480  b.c. 

Xeexes  spent  the  winter  of  481  and  480  b.c.  in 
Sardis,  and  in  the  early  spring  set  out  with  his  vast 
Lost  for  Greece-* 

For  seven  days  and  seven  nights  the  army  was  pass- 
ing the  bridge  over  the  Hellespont.  Xerxes  here  re- 
viewed them,  and  is  said  to  have  wept  at  the  thought 
that  so  vast  a  host  would  all  be  gone  in  a  hundred 
yeai*s. 

From  the  Hellespont  they  marched  along  the  coast 
of  Thrace,  compelling  the  towns  on  their  route  to  fur- 
nish them  meals.  It  took  $400,000  to  provide  this 
luxury ;  thus  it  was  no  small  tax  upon  a  place.  From 
Thrace  they  passed  through  Macedonia  and  Thessalia  to 
the  pass  of  Thermopylae. 

The  fleet  sailed  along  the  coast  of  Thrace,  near  the 
army,  until  it  arrived  off  Mount  Athos.  Here  it  passed 
through  the  canal  mentioned  above,  and,  weathering 
the  other  two  Chalcidian  peninsulas,  it  steered  for  the 
northern  coast  of  Eubcea. 

The  report  of  this  immense  armament  frightened 
most  of  the  Greek  states  so  much,  that  they  did  not 
dare  to  make  any  preparations  for  defence.  The  only 
states  north  of  the  Peloponnesus  that  remained  faithful 


88 


TIIERMOPYLJE, 


to  their  country  were  Attica,  Phocla,  and  the  cities  ol 
Plataeae  and  Thespiae ;  also  the  island  of  iEgina.  In  the 
Peloponnesus  the  Spartans  took  the  most  active  part. 
These  states,  together  with  Thessalia,  held  a  congress 
to  fix  upon  a  spot  most  suitable  for  making  a  stand 
against  the  Persians.  The  pass  of  Tempo,  in  northern 
Thessalia,  and  ThermopylaB  on  the  Maliac  gulf,  were 
tlie  two  most  feasible  spots  for  resistance.  The  latter 
was  chosen. 

Thermopyl^,  July,  480  B.C. 

"Thermopylae  {Hot  Gates)  lay  between  Mount 
(Eta  and  an  inaccessible  morass,  forming  the  e<lge  of 
the  Maliac  gulf.  At  one  end  of  the  pass  the  mountain 
approached  so  close  to  the  morass  as  to  leave  room  for 
only  a  single  carriage  between.  This  narrow  entrance 
formed  the  west  gate  of  Thermopylae.  About  a  milo 
to  the  east  the  mountain  again  approached  close  to  the 
sea,  thus  forming  the  east  gate.  The  space  between 
these  two  gates  was  wider  and  more  open,  and  was 
distinguished  by  its  abundant  flow  of  hot  springs; 
hence  the  name  of  the  place." 

The  Greeks  sent  their  whole  allied  fleet,  under  com- 
mand of  the  Spartan  admiral  Eurybiades,  to  the  north- 
em  coast  of  Euboia,  and  stationed  it  off  Artemisium, 
where  it  commanded  the  entrance  to  the  Maliac  gulf. 
Only  a  small  land  force  was  sent  to  Thennopylie,  under 
command  of  Leonidaa,  king  of  Sparta.  His  forces 
numbered  but  little  over  5,000;  of  these  only  300 
were  Spartans. 

Meanwhile  Xerxes  had  arrived  near  Thermopylae. 
Although  he  had  heard  that  a  few  men  proposed  to 
make  a  stand  against  him  at  this  pass,  yet  he  could 


THERMOPYLAE. 


39 


hardly  believe  it,  and  waited  four  days  for  them  to  dis- 
perse. On  the  fifth  day  he  ordered  picked  troops  to 
advance  and  drive  back  the  Greeks.  But  to  no  purpose. 
Leonidas  and  his  gallant  followers  held  their  position, 
with  gi*eat  loss  to  the  enemy.  The  next  day  the  attack 
was  renewed,  with  the  same  results.  Xerxes  began  to 
despair,  when  Ephialtes,  a  Malian,  informed  him  of  a 
mountain  path  by  which  the  Persians  were  enabled  to 
fall  upon  the  rear  of  the  Greeks. 

When  Leonidas  found  out  that  this  path  had  been 
made  known  to  Xerxes,  he  permitted  most  of  his 
troops  to  return  home,  retaining  only  the  Spartans  and 
700  Thespians. 

He  dressed  himself  in  his  royal  garments,  oflered 
sacrifices  to  the  gods  of  Sparta,  supj)ed  with  his  300 
warriors ;  and,  before  the  body  of  Persians  could  amve 
to  attack  him  in  the  rear,  advanced  with  his  little  band 
against  the  countless  numbers  of  the  foe. 

The  Spartans  had  no  hope  of  victory,  but  were 
anxious  only  to  sell  their  lives  as  dearly  as  possible. 

Leonidas  fell  with  his  companions.  On  the  tomb 
erected  to  his  memory  was  the  following  inscription : 
"  Stranger,  tell  the  Spartans  that  we  lie  here  in  obedi- 
ence to  their  commands.'* 


SALAMIS. 


41 


CHAPTER  yil. 

Artemisium,  July,  480  B.a 

Sal  AMIS,  September  20,  480  b.c. 

When  the  Persian  fleet  arrived  ofl*  Artemisium,  tlie? 
saw  for  the  first  time  the  Greek  ships  of  war  (271  in 
number). 

Preparation  was  immediately  made  to  force  an  en- 
trance through  the  straits  of  Euripus,  between  Eubcea 
and  the  mainland.  Then  followed  three  naval  engage- 
ments without  any  decisive  advantage  to  either  side ; 
but  as  soon  as  the  Greeks  heard  of  the  result  of  Ther- 
mopylaB,  they  withdrew  through  the  straits  of  Euripus, 
taking  along  with  them  as  many  of  the  unfortunate 
inhabitants  of  Eubcea  as  they  could. 

Athens  was  now  threatened  with  immediate  destruc- 
tion. In  six  days  Xerxes  would  appear  with  his  army. 
The  inhabitants  left  their  homes  and  fled,  —  some  to 
Salamis,  some  to  TrcBzen. 

Meanwhile  the  Persian  monarch  was  on  the  march 
from  Thermopylae.  Only  the  inhabitants  of  Phocis, 
Thespiae,  and  Plataeae,  refused  to  acknowledge  his 
power.  Here  he  found  deserted  villages  and  houses. 
As  he  passed  tln-ough  Phocis,  he  sent  a  body  of  troops 
to  Delphi  to  plunder  the  temple.  As  the  soldiers  were 
marching  up  the  path,  at  the  base  of  Mount  Parnassus, 
a  violent  thunder  tempest  arose,  causing  crags  to  roll 


down  the  mountain  side,  and  spreading  dismay  among 
the  ranks.  Seized  with  panic,  they  turned  and  fled, 
abandoning  all  further  attempts  upon  the  temple. 
When  Xerxes  arrived  at  Athens,  he  found  the  city 
deserted,  except  by  a  few  desperate  men.  He  burned 
all  the  buildings  on  the  Acropolis.  At  the  same  time 
tlie  Persian  fleet,  consisting  of  1,000  sail,  arrived  in  the 
bay  of  Phalerum,  off  Athens. 

The  combined  Greek  fleet  under  Eurybiades,  consist- 
ing of  366  ships,  was  stationed  at  Salamis.  200  of 
these  ships  were  Athenian,  and  commanded  by  Themis- 
tocles.  All  of  tlie  Greek  commanders,  except  Thcmis- 
tocles,  wished  to  retreat  to  the  isthmus  of  Corinth, 
and  there  co-operate  with  the  land  forces.  But  he  said 
no^  for,  if  a  battle  was  fought  in  the  bay  of  Salamis,  the 
large  Persian  fleet  could  not  manoeuvre,  and  the  smaller 
Greek  fleet  would  have  the  advantage.  At  first  he 
persuaded  Eurybiades  to  order  the  fleet  to  remain  at 
Salamis,  but  the  other  commanders  were  so  dissatisfied 
that  another  council  was  called.  Themistocles  then  had 
recourse  to  stratagem.  He  sent  a  trusty  slave,  who 
knew  the  Persian  language,  to  inform  Xerxes  of  the 
dissensions  among  the  Greeks,  and  tell  him  how  easy  it 
would  be  to  surround  and  conquer  a  fleet  so  small  and 
disunited.  Xerxes  followed  the  advice,  and  ordered  his 
forces  to  close  up  the  straits  of  Salamis  at  both  ends 
during  the  night.  The  next  morning  (September  20) 
the  Persian  fleet  was  seen  stretchinnr  alono:  the  coast 
as  fiir  as  eye  could  reach.  Xerxes  had  a  silver-footed 
throne  erected  on  a  high  hill,  on  the  mainland  opposite 
the  bay  of  Salamis,  where  he  could  see  the  contest  and 
encourage  his  men.  His  land  forces  were  drawn  up  on 
the  right.     Both  sides  prepared  for  a  most  determired 


42 


SALAMIS. 


struggle.  The  last  hope  of  the  Greeks  was  in  the 
annihilation  of  tlic  foe;  and  behind  them  stood  on  the 
heisrhts  of  Salarnis  their  wives  and  children,  who  would 
be  sold  into  slavery,  if  the  Persians  were  victorious. 

The  Persians  made  the  first  general  attack,  driving 
the  Greeks  back  upon  Salarnis.  But  the  latter  soon 
advanced  again,  and  then  ensued  a  fierce  battle.  The 
barbarians,  depending  upon  mere  numbers,  fought  with- 
out any  systematic  order ;  while  the  Greeks  held  to- 
gether in  squadrons.  The  size  of  the  Persian  fleet  was 
its  own  destruction.  Tliey  were  too  crowded  to  do 
efficient  service,  and  thus  the  more  easily  fell  a  prey  to 
the  Greeks.  Ariabignea,  the  admiral  and  brother  of 
Xerxes,  and  other  men  of  rank,  fell  in  the  fight.  Tlie 
fleet  lost  confidence  in  itself,  and  began  to  retreat  to 
the  bay  of  Plialerum. 

Aristeides,  who  had  been  viewing  the  battle,  with  a 
band  of  armed  citizens,  from  Salamis,  now  landed  on 
the  island  of  Psyttaleia,  where  were  stationed  a  body 
of  picked  Persians,  and,  falling  upon  them,  cut  them  to 
pieces.  Two  hours  after  sunset  the  moon  rose  to  favor 
the  last  moments  of  pursuit,  and  light  up  for  the  Greeks 
the  bay  of  Salamis,  abandoned  by  the  Persians,  and 
densely  covered  with  fragments  of  vessels  and  bodies 
of  the  dead. 

Athough  this  victory  was  a  brilliant  one,  yet,  if 
Xerxes  had  been  any  thing  but  the  veriest  coward,  the 
Greeks  would  have  been  no  better  off  than  before.  He 
still  had  his  immense  army  unimpaired,  and  full  three- 
quarters  of  his  fleet ;  but  the  boastfid  arrogance  of  the 
great  king  was  broken  down.  He  lost  confidence  in 
his  men,  and  his  heart  sunk  at  the  possibility  of  being 
surrounded  in  a  hostile  land.   Hence  it  was  not  strange 


SALAMIS. 


43 


that  he  believed  the  story  of  Themistocles,  that  the 
bridge  over  the  Hellespont  might  be  destroyed,  and 
thus  his  retreat  cut  ofi". 

Accordingly  he  immediately  made  preparations  to 
depart,  and  ordered  the  fleet  to  sail  for  tlie  Hellespont. 
He  left  the  best  of  his  land  forces  (300,000),  under  com- 
mand  of  Mardonius,  to  complete  the  subjugation  of 
Greece,  so  ingloriously  begun. 


CHAPTER  VIIL 

Plat^ile,  September,  479  B.C. 

The  departure  of  Xerxes  gave  the  Greeks  just  cause 
for  rejoicing.  Gifts  were  vowed  to  the  gods,  and  prizes 
distributed.  Honors  were  heaped  upon  Themistocles 
at  Sparta.  Together  with  Eurybiades,  he  was  publicly 
crowned  with  -a  wreath,  presented  with  a  splendid 
chariot,  and  conducted  solemnly  by  300  Spartan 
knights  as  far  as  the  frontier  of  the  land.  All  these 
honors  were  not  such  as  would  create  a  favorable  im- 
pression at  Athens.  At  any  rate,  either  for  this  or 
some  other  reason,  the  influence  of  Aristeides  again 
became  predominant.  In  the  spring  of  479  B.C.  he 
was  elected  commander-in-chief  of  the  Athenian  land 

forces. 

Mardonius  spent  the  winter  of  480-79  b.c.  in  Thes- 
salia.  From  the  first  his  conduct  was  marked  by  ex- 
treme  caution.  He  passed  the  time  in  forming  such 
connections  as  he  could  with  Greek  states,  and  especially 
in  negotiating  with  the  Athenians.  He  even  offered  to 
rebuild  their  city  and  temples,  if  they  would  make  a 
common  cause  with  him.  Aristeides  was  now  the  one 
to  come  forward  and  take  a  firm  stand.  Through  him 
the  Athenians  declared  that  they  would  not  barter 
away  their  liberty  for  any  treasures  in  the  world ;  that 
they  were  the  enemies  of  the  Persians,  and  would  remain 


PL  A  TuE^. 


45 


Buch  as  long  as  the  sun  pursued  its  course.  In  May, 
479  B.C.,  Mardonius  advanced  towards  the  south,  and  in 
July  reoccupied  Athens.  Again  the  Athenians  were 
compelled  to  leave  their  homes  and  undergo  the  pri- 
vations attendant  upon  emigration.  After  devastating 
the  whole  of  Attica,  Mardonius  passed  back  over 
Cithasron  into  Boeotia,  where,  in  the  meadows  of  the 
Asopus  near  Plataeae,  there  would  V»e  a  favorable  oppor- 
tunity for  the  management  of  his  oavalry. 

^  Meanwhile  the  Peloponnesiaus  had  joined  the  Athe- 
nians  at  Eleusis.  The  commander-in-chief  of  both  was 
Pausanias,  king  of  Sparta,  who  was  a  man  of  genius 
and  great  ambition.  The  forces  in  all  amounted  to 
some  110,000  troops:  of  these,  Athens  sent  8,000,  led 
by  Aristeides.  It  was  the  largest  combined  army  that 
Greece  ever  raised,  but  it  contained  no  cavalry.  These 
forces  marched  into  Boeotia,  and  met  Mardonius  and 
his  troops  near  Platajae.  The  armies  confronted  one 
another  for  ten  days,  neither  having  the  courage  to 
take  the  initiative.  At  last  the  Persians  began  to 
suflTer  from  the  want  of  supplies,  and  determined  to 
make  an  attack.  The  result  of  the  battle  was  doubtful 
for  a  long  time.  Great  bravery  was  shown  on  both 
sides.  At  last  the  combat  was  decided  by  the  heavy 
armor  and  coolness  of  the  Spartans.  The  Persians 
gave  way ;  and  when  Mardonius  himself  fell,  all  resist- 
ance  was  at  an  end. 

In  another  part  of  the  field  the  Athenians  had  hot 
work  with  the  Greek  allies  of  Mardonius,  but  finally 
Aristeides  succeeded  in  driving  back  the  ranks  of  the 
foe.  In  this  memorable  fight,  both  Athens  and  Sparta 
proved  themselves  the  leading  champions  of  Greece. 
The  victory  of  Plataeae  was  the  most  decisive  of  the 


46 


PL  A  t^je:. 


whole  war ;  for  Marathon  and  Salamis  had  only  broken 
the  courage  of  the  enemy,  while  here  his  power  was 
annihilated.  With  a  loflier  pride  than  ever  before,  the 
Greeks  recoirnized  the  contrast  between  themselves  and 
the  barbarians,  and  never  was  their  country  stronger 
than  on  the  battle-liuld  of  Plataeaj. 


CHAPTER  IX 

Mycale,  September,  479  B.a 
Rebuilding  op  Athens. 

iMaiEDiATELY  after  the  flight  of  Xerxes  from  Salamis, 
Themistocles  sailed  with  the  Athenian  fleet  over  the 
^gean,  visiting  the  ishmds  and  compelling  them  to 
pay  tributes.  He  returned  to  Athens  with  large  stores 
of  money.  Emboldened  by  this,  the  Athenians  with 
Bome  allies  sent  out,  in  the*  early  spring,  while  Mar- 
donius  was  still  in  Thessalia,  a  fleet  of  110  sail,  under 
Leotychides  and  Xanthippus.  In  the  mean  time  a 
Persian  fleet  of  300  ships  had  anchored  ofl*  Samos, 
and  a  land  army  was  being  collected  at  Mycale. 
Xerxes  himself  remained  near  Sardis,  to  await  the  final 
result  of  the  operations  of  Mardonius.  The  Greek 
fleet  made  for  Samos.  Upon  their  arrival,  the  Persians 
retreated  to  the  promontory  of  Mycale,  disembarked, 
drew  their  ships  ashore,  and  with  the  land  army  strongly 
entrenched  themselves.  The  Greeks,  however,  followed 
them,  and,  in  spite  of  showers  of  arrows,  advanced 
against  the  fortified  encampment.  A  hand-to-hand 
fight  then  ensued,  resulting  in  the  total  rout  of  the 
Persians.  This  victory  is  said  to  have  been  gained  on 
the  same  day  as  that  ot*  PlataeaB. 

One  of  the  results  of  Mycale  was  that  Greece 
obtained  the  control  of  all  the  islands  near  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor. 


46 


PLATjEJU. 


whole  war ;  for  Marathon  and  Salamis  had  only  broken 
the  courage  of  the  enemy,  while  here  his  power  was 
annihilated.  With  a  loftier  pride  than  ever  before,  the 
Greeks  recognized  the  contrast  between  themselves  and 
the  barbarians,  and  never  was  their  country  stronger 
than  on  the  battle-held  of  PlatiEOB. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


Mycale,  September,  479  b.c. 
Rebuilding  op  Athens. 


Immediately  after  the  flight  of  Xerxes  from  Salamis, 
Tliemistocles  sailed  with  the  Athenian  fleet  over  the 
^gean,  visiting  the  islands  and  compelling  them  to 
pay  tributes.  He  returned  to  Athens  with  large  stores 
of  money.  Emboldened  by  this,  the  Athenians  with 
some  allies  sent  out,  in  the*  early  spring,  while  Mar- 
donius  was  still  in  Thessalia,  a  fleet  of  110  sail,  under 
Leotychides  and  Xanthippus.  In  the  mean  time  a 
Persian  fleet  of  300  ships  had  anchored  ofi*  Samos, 
and  a  land  army  was  being  collected  at  Mycale. 
Xerxes  himself  remained  near  Sard  is,  to  await  the  final 
result  of  the  operations  of  Mardonius.  The  Greek 
fleet  made  for  Samos.  Upon  their  arrival,  the  Persians 
retreated  to  the  promontory  of  Mycale,  disembarked, 
drew  their  ships  ashore,  and  with  the  land  army  strongly 
entrenched  themselves.  The  Greeks,  however,  followed 
them,  and,  in  spite  of  showers  of  arrows,  advanced 
against  the  fortified  encampment.  A  hand-to-hand 
fight  then  ensued,  resulting  in  the  total  rout  of  the 
Persians.  This  victory  is  said  to  have  been  gained  on 
the  same  day  as  that  of  Plataeae. 

One  of  the  results  of  Mycale  was  that  Greece 
obtained  the  control  of  all  the  islands  near  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor. 


48 


REBUILDING  OF  ATHENS. 


REBUILDING  OF  ATHENS. 


49 


But  Sestos,  a  strong  fortress  on  the  Hellespont,  waa 
still  in  the  hands  of  the  Persians.  To  this  place  the 
Athenian  fleet  under  Xanthippus  sailed,  laid  siege  to 
the  town,  and  after  a  protracted  resistance  starved  it 
out  (478  B.C.).  Thus  the  Chersonesus  was  liberated, 
and  ample  spoils  carried  home. 

How  fared  Athens  during  this  time?  Her  walls 
gone,  her  houses  burned,  —  nothing  but  ashes  and  ruins. 
A  sad  prospect  indeed  to  the  inhabitants  as  they  re- 
turned to  their  city,  and  endeavored  as  best  they  could 
to  make  the  hardships  of  the  coming  winter  endurable. 
As  soon  as  the  spring  opened,  all  possible  haste  was 
made  for  the  restoration  of  the  city.  To  Themistocles 
everybody  looked  as  a  head.  It  was  through  his  un- 
tiring energy  that  Athens  rose  so  soon  from  her  ruins, 
stronger  and  greater  than  before.  But  she  was  not 
allowed  to  recover  her  strength  in  peace.  The  Pelopon- 
nesians,  especially  Sparta,  fearing  that  Athens  would 
outstrip  all  the  rest,  resolved  at  any  price  to  prevent 
the  building  of  walls  around  the  city.  They  sent  am- 
bassadors to  demand  of  the  Athenians  the  cessation  of 
building.  At  this  critical  moment,  the  craft  of  Them- 
istocles was  of  avail.  He  ordered  immediate  com- 
pliance with  the  demands  ;  and,  pretending  submissive- 
ness,  repaired  himself  to  Sparta,  in  order  to  treat  with 
the  Spartans  in  person.  On  his  arrival  there,  he  kept 
deferring  the  time  of  negotiations  from  day  to  day, 
excusing  himself  on  the  ground  that  his  fellow-envoys 
had  not  yet  arrived. 

Meanwhile  at  Athens,  all,  young  and  old,  male  and 
female,  were  working  unceasingly  to  complete  the 
walls.  As  soon  as  they  reached  a  height  sufficient  for 
defending  the  city,  the  other  envoys  joined  Themisto- 


cles, and  shortly  after  they  openly  informed  the  Spar- 
tans of  the  progress  of  the  work.  The  enemies  of 
Athens  were  then  obliged  to  acquiesce  in  what  had 
been  done.  Two  years  after  the  battle  of  Plataete,  the 
Acropolis  ^  and  lower  city  were  enclosed  by  walls  sixty 
feet  high.  Also  the  Peirajeus,*  at  a  distance  of  four 
and  one-half  miles  from  Athens,  was  surrounded  by 
a  wall  thirty  feet  high,  sixteen  feet  thick,  and  seven 
miles  in  length.  At  the  mouth  of  each  of  the  harbors 
a  pair  of  towers  was  erected,  opposite  to  each  other  and 
BO  near  together  that  they  could  be  connected  by 
chains.  Thus  the  harbors  could  be  locked  up  and  all 
invaders  kept  at  bay.  The  Peiraseus  itself  became 
a  busy  town,  even  rivalling  Athens.  To  Themistocles 
is  due  this  remarkable  change,  effected  in  so  short  a 
time ;  and  when  we  learn  of  his  final  career,  we  shall 
be  the  more  surprised  that  a  man  who  had  done  so 
much  for  his  native  city  could  at  last  become  a  traitor. 

»  See  Chapter  XIV. 


PAUSANIAS, 


61 


CHAPTER  X. 

Pausanias.    The  Confederacy  op  Delos. 

In  the  spring  of  477  b.c,  a  combined  fleet  of  100 
ships  set  sail  from  Greece,  directing  their  course  towards 
the  island  of  Cyprus,  which,  on  account  of  its  vast 
resources,  was  indispensable  to  the  Persians.  Of  this 
fleet  the  Athenians  furnished  thirty  sail,  under  com- 
mand of  Aristeides  and  Cimon,  the  son  of  Miltiades. 
The  chief  command  of  the  whole  fleet  was  given  to 
Pausanias. 

Cyprus  possessed  admirable  facilities  for  trade  and 
commerce.  To  turn  these  facilities  to  their  own  ad- 
vantage, the  Persians  had  stationed  garrisons  in  the 
towns  of  the  island.  Notwithstanding  these  numerous 
garrisons,  the  Greek  fleet  accomplished,  before  the  sum- 
mer was  far  spent,  the  partial  liberation  of  the  whole 
island.  But,  instead  of  completing  their  work  here, 
they  resolved  to  sail  against  Byzantium  (Constantinople) 
before  the  cold  weather  of  autumn  and  winter  set  in. 

Byzantium  was  a  stronglv  fortified  place,  where  tlie 
Persians  had  deposited,  for  dafe  keeping,  a  large  store 
of  treasures.  The  garrison  were  wholly  unprepared  for 
resistance,  as  they  did  not  expect  an  attack  from  an 
enemy  supposed  to  be  engaged  in  Cyprus.  The  place 
was  stormed  without  difficulty  by  the  Greeks.  An 
immense  booty  fell  into  their  hands,  and  many  Persians 
of  high  rank. 


Such  good  fortune  was  too  much  for  Pausanias.  Con- 
tinued success  made  him  vain-glorious  and  desirous 
of  still  greater  power.  He  could  not  submit  to  the 
idea  of  again  being  under  the  control  of  the  Ephors  at 
home,  and  resolved  at  any  price  to  free  himself  from 
such  unpleasant  connections. 

To  carry  out  his  wishes,  he  needed  the  co-operation 
of  Xerxes. 

Accordingly  he  allowed  the  noblest  of  the  prisoners 
to  escape ;  then  wrote  to  Xerxes,  declaring  that  it  was 
his  fondest  wish  to  bring  Greece  under  the  control  of 
the  great  king. 

Xerxes  eagerly  entered  into  his  plans,  and  sent  one 
of  his  friends  to  treat  with  him.  The  pride  of  Pausanias 
now  knew  no  bounds.  He  displayed  his  plans  with 
foolish  boldness,  arrayed  himself  with  all  the  pomp  and 
show  of  the  Persians,  was  accompanied  by  an  Egyptian 
and  Median  body-guard,  treated  his  soldiers  with  lordly 
arrogance,  and  in  every  way  acted  the  part  of  a  cruel 
tyrant. 

The  result  of  all  this  was  that  the  Greek  forces 
became  discontented;  especially  the  lonians  and  Athe- 
nians, whose  indignation  knew  no  bounds. 

In  striking  contrast  to  the  arrogant  Pausanias  stood 
forth  the  simple  and  honest  Aristeides,  always  calm  and 
impartial,  devoted  only  to  the  best  interests  of  his 
country.  By  his  side  stood  Cimon,  a  man  of  great 
liberality,  friendly  and  courteous  to  all. 

Meanwhile  rumors  of  the  outrageous  conduct  of 
Pausanias  reached  Sparta.  Accordingly  the  Ephoi-s 
summoned  him  home  to  give  an  account  of  himself! 
The  Peloponnesian  fleet  also  returned  with  him. 

As  soon   as  Pausanias   departed,  the  lonians,  who 


62 


CONFEDERACY  OF  DELOS. 


formed  an  important  part  of  the  combined  fleet,  re- 
warded Aiisteides  with  the  command  of  it  (in  the 
spring  of  476  B.C.). 

This  is  an  event  of  great  importance,  as  it  gave  to 
Athens  the  leadership  by  sea,  previously  held  by 
Sparta. 

An  offensive  and  defensive  league  was  then  formed 
by  Athens,  through  the  instrumentality  of  Aristeides, 
with  the  islands  of  the  ^gean,  and  the  Ionian  cities  on 
the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  against  the  power  of 
Persia. 

This  league  was  called  the  CoNrKDEBACT  of  J[)elos. 
The  original  idea  of  this  confederacy  was  a  free  league. 
The  island  of  Delos  was  made  the  centre.  There  a 
congress,  consisting  of  delegates  from  all  the  members 
of  the  league,  was  to  sit  every  year,  and  there  the 
treasury  to  be,  into  which  the  annual  sum  of  460  talents 
(about  $500,000)  was  contributed.  Athens  was  to  be 
considered  the  head  of  this  confederacy,  with  however 
no  more  real  power  than  the  other  members. 

Such  was  the  original  idea  of  the  confederacy.  But 
Athens  soon  changed  her  nominal  leadership  to  a 
sovereignty.  At  first  any  state  or  city  could  join  the 
confederacy  or  leave  it  at  will,  but  ere  long  Athens 
obtained  such  power  that  she  did  not  allow  any  state  to 
leave  it ;  and  if  they  made  the  attempt,  as  some  did,  she 
reduced  them  by  force  of  arms.  Next  the  treasury 
was  transferred  from  Delos  to  Athens,  and  the  annual 
meetings  of  the  congress  discontinued.  Finally  Athens 
appropriated  to  her  own  use  the  money  and  ships  of 
the  allies,  and  the  members  of  the  league  were  treated 
as  Athenian  subjects,  instead  of  allies.  These  changes, 
while  they  increased  the  apparent  power  of  Athens, 


CONFEDERACY  OF  DELOS. 


53 


at  the  same  time  aroused  a  feeling  of  deep  discontent 
among  the  other  members  of  the  league,  and  finally 
turned  to  her  disaster.  Such  was  the  origin  and  brief 
history  of  the  Confederacy  of  Delos,  which  was  the 
beginning  of  the  Athenian  leadership,  a  leadership  last- 
ing for  three-quarters  of  a  century,  during  a  period 
most  brilliant  in  Athenian  history. 

Sparta  and  the  Peloponnesus  took  no  part  in  form- 
ing this  league;  but  they  looked  with  eyes  fu*l  of 
envy  upon  the  rapid  growth  of  Athens. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
Pausanias.    Themistocles.    Aristeides. 


After  the  recall  from  Byzantium,  Paiisanias  did  not 
give  up  his  plans  there  formed.  He  succeeded,  by 
means  of  bribes,  in  obtaining  an  acquittal  of  the  charge 
of  high  treason  brought  against  him  by  his  accusei-s. 
He  afterwards  returned  to  Byzantium  and  renewed 
his  intrigues  with  Xerxes ;  but  again  the  Ephors  called 
him  to  an  account  for  these  actions,  and  he  was  obliged 
to  return  home.  Here,  notwithstanding  he  was  a 
second  time  (471  B.C.)  prosecuted  for  high  treason,  he 
carried  on  unhindered  his  correspondence  with  Xerxes. 
One  of  the  slaves  whom  he  sent  with  a  letter  to  the 
Persian  king,  noticing  that  those  previously  sent  on 
the  same  errand  had  never  returned,  opened  the  letter, 
and  found,  among  other  things,  an  order  for  his  own 
death.  He  gave  the  letter  to  the  Ephors,  who  at  last 
ordered  the  arrest  of  Pausanias.  He  fled  to  a  temple 
for  refuge.  Here,  as  it  was  against  the  divine  law  to 
lay  hands  upon  him,  he  was  walled  in,  and  not  carried 
out  until  at  the  point  of  starvation,  that  by  his  death 
he  might  not  pollute  the  sacred  place. 

Themistocles,  as  we  saw,  immediately  after  the  battle 
of  Salamis,  was  very  popular  among  the  Spartans.  His 
subsequent  deception  practised  upon  them,  in  order 
that  Athens  might  be  walled,  cost  him  much  of  this 


THEMISTOCLES. 


55 


popularity.  At  home,  too,  he  acted  in  a  proud  and 
vain-glorious  manner.  He  caused  a  statue  of  him- 
self to  be  set  up  in  his  own  house.  On  every  occa- 
sion his  harsh  and  imperious  self-will  was  manifest. 
This  personal  vanity  offended  the  fine  tastes  of  the 
Athenians,  and  gradually  he  became  less  and  less  popu- 
lar, until  in  471  b.c.  he  was  banished.  He  retired  to 
Argos.  Shortly  after  the  Ephors  at  Sparta  found 
proofs  convicting  him  of  a  share  in  the  guilt  of  Pau- 
sanias. Themistocles  was  obliged  to  flee  like  a  com- 
mon criminal  from  one  place  of  refuge  to  another. 
Finally  he  crossed  the  -^gean,  and  repaired  to  the 
court  of  Artaxerxes  (son  of  Xerxes),  465  b.c.  Here 
he  learned  in  a  year  the  Persian  tongue.  He  became 
the  king's  companion  and  a  person  of  decided  influ- 
ence. Magnesia  on  the  Marauder  was  given  him  to 
live  in.  An  annual  sum  of  $50,000  supported  him. 
Notwithstanding  all  this  splendor,  his  lot  was  neither 
happy  nor  peaceable.  He  had  many  enemies,  who 
were  continually  trying  to  undermine  his  influence  with 
the  king,  and  his  reckless  boldness  often  exposed  him 
to  danger.  He  died  in  449  b.c,  at  the  age  of  sixty-five. 
His  remains  were  afterwards  carried  back  to  Athens, 
and  secretly  buried. 

Aristeides  died  a  few  yeai*s  after  the  banishment  ot 
Themistocles,  468  b.c.  He  is  said  to  have  been  so 
poor  that  the  state  paid  the  expenses  of  his  funeral. 

Thus  ended  the  three  great  men  of  this  generation. 
Athens  owed  much  to  both  Aristeides  and  Themistocles. 
The  former  was  the  leader  in  the  Confederacy  of 
Delos,  such  an  important  addition  to  the  power  of 
the  city.  The  latter  was  the  statesman  to  whom  she 
owed,  in  a  great  measure,  her  internal  growth  and 


56 


ARISTEIDES. 


progress.  Aristeides  shared  in  the  laurels  of  Plataew. 
Themistocles  won  Salamis.  The  one,  however,  was  a 
conservative,  and  of  no  great  military  talent ;  while 
the  dishonest  conduct  of  the  other  led  his  countrymen 
to  distrust  him.  Both  were  great  men,  and  in  each  we 
can  learn  much  to  imitate  and  avoid.  In  Pausanias 
we  see  the  bad  results  of  unrestrained  ambition,  joined 
to  an  unscrupulous  conscience.  It  would  be  unneces- 
sary for  us  to  take  warning,  perhaps,  did  we  not  see 
every  day,  on  a  smaller  scale,  the  same  results  arising 
from  the  same  causes. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


CiMON.    Battle  of  Eueymedon,  466  b.o 


After  the  banishment  of  Themistocles  (471  B.C.), 
Cimon,  son  of  Miltiades,  became  the  most  influential 
man  at  Athens.  Cimon  possessed  great  military  talent. 
He  was  frank  and  pleasing  in  his  manners.  His  im- 
mense wealth  enabled  him  to  bestow  presents  with  un- 
bounded liberality.  The  natural  result  of  this  was  that 
his  popularity  was  marked.  Shortly  after  the  forming 
of  the  Confederacy  of  Delos,  Cimon  had  succeeded 
Aristeides  in  the  command  of  the  combined  fleet.  His 
first  important  action  was  the  siege  and  capture  of  Eion 
(475  B.C.),  a  town  near  the  mouth  of  the  Strymon. 
This  place  was  a  stronghold  of  the  Persians,  and  its 
occupation  of  great  importance  to  Athens.  It  also  was 
a  key  to  the  gold  mines  in  southern  Thrace,  by  which 
the  treasury  at  Athens  was  much  enriched.  The  next 
exploit  of  Cimon  was  the  reduction  of  the  island  of 
Bcyros  off  the  coast  of  Eubcea,  in  470  B.C.  This  island 
afforded  a  fine  naval  station  for  the  Athenian  fleet. 

Soon  after  this  the  first  feelings  of  discontent  are  seen 
among  the  members  of  the  Confederacy  of  Delos. 
NazoB,  one  of  the  members,  revolted  in  466  b.c,  unable 
to  endure  the  growing  oppressiveness  of  the  Athenian 
leadership.  Cimon  immediately  attacked  the  island, 
and  after  a  blockade  of  some  duration  reduced  it  and 
made  it  a  mere  tributary  to  Athens.  In  the  same  year 
8» 


68 


BATTLE  OF  EURYMEDON. 


he  proceeded  with  his  fleet  to  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
expelled  the  Persians  from  several  Greek  cities  in  Caria 
and  Lydia,  and  finally  met  their  combined  land  and 
naval  forces  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Eurymedon 
in  Pamphylia,  where  the  Persians  suflered  a  severe 
defeat. 

The  results  of  this  brilliant  victory  of  Cimon  were 
that  the  cities  of  Lycia  as  far  east  as  Pamphylia  joined 
the  Confederacy  of  Delos. 

The  Athenians,  in  their  attempt  to  extend  their 
dominion  along  the  Thracian  coast,  were  violently 
opposed  by  the  neighboring  island  of  Thasos.  Tlie 
Thasians  were  an  enterprising  people  of  much  wealth, 
accruing:  from  their  mines  and  extensive  commerce. 
They  had  control  of  the  opposite  mainland  of  Thrace, 
and  were  especially  enriched  by  the  valuable  gold 
mines  of  Mount  Pangaeus,  near  Eion. 

The  encroachments  of  the  Athenians  upon  this  terri- 
tory (see  above,  capture  of  Eion)  naturally  aroused  the 
indignation  of  the  Thasians.  In  464  B.C.  they  openly 
revolted  from  the  Confederacy  of  Delos. 

Cimon  took  command  of  the  expedition  against  the 
Thasians,  who  soon  perceived  that  they  would  bo  un- 
able to  withstand  successfully  his  fleet,  and  accordingly 
sent  envoys  to  Sparta  for  aid.  Here  they  met  with  a 
favorable  reception ;  for,  while  Athens  had  been  gain- 
ing victory  after  victory,  and  extending  her  power  from 
year  to  year,  Sparta  had  stood  still  with  no  increase 
in  strength  or  influence. 

It  was  necessary  therefore  for  Sparta  to  arouse  her- 
self and  recover  her  former  power  and  authority.  Ac- 
cordingly she  promised  immediate  aid  to  Thasos ;  but 
before  she  could  fulfil  her  promise  a  terrible  calamity 


CIMON. 


69 


occurred,  which  interrupted  her  preparations.  This 
was  an  earthquake  (464  b.c.)  of  the  most  violent  char- 
acter. The  city  was  all  destroyed  except  a  few  houses. 
At  the  same  time  the  Helots  revolted.  The  Thasians 
were  obliged  to  do  without  their  promised  help.  They 
maintained  an  obstinate  struggle  for  more  than  two 
years,  until  their  resources  were  exhausted.  Tlie 
proud  island  was  obliged  to  give  up  her  navy,  pull 
down  her  walls,  pay  the  expenses  of  the  war,  relin- 
quish the  rich  mines  of  Thrace,  and  pay  a  regular 
tribute  to  Athens. 

Cimon  now  stood  at  the  zenith  of  his  fame,  equalled 
by  no  previous  Athenian  general.  Ever  since  he  suc- 
ceeded Aristeides  in  the  command  of  the  fleet,  his  vic- 
tories had  been  uninterrupted.  Of  aristocratic  birth, 
he  naturally  looked  upon  Sparta  with  more  favor  than 
the  Athenians  in  general.  His  policy  was  to  maintain 
an  alliance  with  this  city,  and  he  often  held  her  up 
as  an  example  worthy  of  imitation.  To  such  a  policy 
the  views  of  his  predecessor,  Themistocles,  had  been 
directly  opposed.  These  ideas  of  Themistocles  were 
still  alive ;  moreover,  they  had  taken  deep  root  in  the 
Athenian  mind.  Hence  a  party,  large  and  constantly 
growing,  was  soon  opposed  to  Cimon. 

The  Spartans,  unable  to  suppress  the  revolt  of  the 
Helots,  sent  to  Athens  in  462  b.c.  for  aid,  which  the 
Athenians  would  have  refused,  had  not  Cimon  and  his 
adherents  interceded  in  behalf  of  Sparta.  Troops  under 
Cimon  w^ere  sent  to  Ithome,  wiiere  the  Helots  were 
strongly  entrenched.  But  because  Cimon  did  not 
immediately  dislodge  their  rebellious  subjects,  the 
Spartans  began  to  suspect  him  of  secretly  helj)- 
ing  the  enemy,  and  dismissed  him  with  his  army,  on 


60 


CIMON. 


the  ground  that  they   had  no  further  need  of  hia 
Bervices. 

Athens  was  stung  to  the  quick  by  this  insult.  Her 
alliance  with  Sparta  was  broken  off.  The  indignation 
was  so  deep  that  Cimon  himself  was  banished  shortly 
afterwards  (461  b.c.). 


I 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

Pericles.    Tanagra,  457  b.c. 
CEnophyta,  456  b.c. 

As  the  influence   of  Cimon  had  declined,   that  of 
Pericles  increased.     Pericles  was  the  greatest  of  Athe- 
nian statesmen.    By  birth  he  was  one  of  the  noblest 
Athenians,  a  £, rand-nephew  of  Cleisthenes.     He  pos- 
sessed an  ample  fortune,  which  was  not  spared  in  pre- 
paring him  carefully  for  the  career  of  a  statesman.  The 
most  scholarly  and  ablest  men  of  the  age  were  employed 
tp  instruct  him.    Although  connected  on  his  mother's 
side  with   the  noble   families  of  Athens,  Pericles  be- 
longed  to   the  popular  party.     He  first  appeared   in 
public  about  469  b.c.     He  was  an  opponent  of  Cimon, 
who  was  through  his  influence  ostracized  461  b.c.     The 
ambition  of  Pericles  aimed  at  securing  for  Athens  the 
first  position  in  Greece  by  land  as  well  as  by  sea.    "  He 
resolved  to  make  his  native  city  the  most  illustrious  in 
the  world ;  and  he  fulfilled  his  resolution.     He  crowned 
the  Acropolis  ^  with  wonders  of  architecture  which  no 
other  city  has  approached;  he  filled  the  temples  and 
public  squares  with  sculptures,  whose  fragments  are  the 
teachers  of  modern  artists,  as  they  gaze  upon  them 
with  delight,  wonder,  and  despair;  he  caused  the  mas- 
terpieces of  tragedy  and  comedy  to  crowd  the  Diony- 


^  See  next  chapter. 


62 


TAN  AGRA. 


siac  Theatre  at  the  great  festivals.  He  was  moderate 
in  his  counsels,  and  always  opposed  extravagant  plans 
of  foreign  conquest."  Had  he  lived  longer,  the  disasters 
that  befell  Athens  might  have  been  averted. 

The  jealousy  of  Sparta  was  aroused  to  such  a  pitch 
by  the  prosperity  of  her  rival  city,  that  towards  the  end 
of  the  revolt  of  the  Helots  (which  was  finally  put  down 
in  455  B.C.)  she  resolved  to  take  some  action. 

Under  pretence  of  assisting  the  Dorians,  whose 
temtory  had  been  invaded  by  the  Phocians,  a  large 
force  was  sent  into  central  Greece.  But  upon  their 
arrival  the  Spartans  proceeded  to  caiTy  out  their  real 
designs ;  viz.,  to  prevent  Athens  from  gaining  any  more 
power  in  the  other  states  of  central  Greece,  especially 
in  Ba3otia.  The  Athenians,  in  whose  breasts  still 
rankled  the  insults  recently  received  at  Ithome,  were 
ready  for  a  trial  at  arms.  The  two  parties  met  near 
Tanagra,  in  the  ejistern  part  of  Ba?otia.  Here  a  liard 
battle  ensued  (457  B.C.),  in  which  the  Athenians  were 
defeated ;  but  the  victory  of  the  Spartans  was  not 
decisive  enough  to  give  them  any  real  advantage. 
They  made  no  further  attempts,  for  the  present,  to 
o})pose  the  progress  of  Athens. 

On  the  eve  of  this  battle,  the  banislied  Cimon  ap- 
peared in  the  Athenian  camp,  and  begged  permission 
of  his  countrymen  to  fight  in  their  ranks  as  a  common 
soldier.  His  request  was  not  granted.  Whereupon  he 
left  his  armor  with  some  friends,  begging  them  to  wipe 
out  by  deeds  of  valor  the  stains  under  which  he  labored. 
They  set  up  the  armor  in  their  midst,  and  closing  around 
it  fought  with  desperate  courage. 

This  action  of  Cimon  caused  a  change  of  public  feel- 
ing at  Athens,  and  he  was  recalled  from  banishment. 


(ENOPHYTA. 


63 


Athens  did  not  allow  Thebes,  the  centre  of  the 
oligarchical  party  north  of  the  Peloponnesus,  and  her 
own  opponent  in  all  democratic  measures,  to  profit  by 
the  victory  of  the  Spartans  at  Tanagra. 

Two  months  later  (early  in  456  b.c.)  Athenian  forces 
crossed  over  the  mountains  into  Bceotia,  and  met  the 
Thebans  near  CEnophyta.  This  battle  put  an  end  to 
the  power  of  Thebes.  The  oligarchical  governments 
in  all  the  towns  of  Bceotia  were  overthrown,  and 
democratic  constitutions  established  in  their  place. 

CEnophyta  marks  the  era  of  Athens'  highest  pros- 
perity. Her  infiuence  not  only  extended  over  central 
Greece,  and  the  islands  and  cities  of  the  Confederacy 
of  Delos,  but  she  also  sent  out  colonies  to  distant 
shores,  and  new  towns  arose  at  Amphipolis  in  Thrace, 
Thurii  in  Italy,  and  elsewhere.  But  her  prosperity  was 
not  uninterrupted.  Clouds  began  to  appear  on  her 
horizon,  and  stormy  days  were  in  store.  In  449  b.c. 
she  lost  her  greatest  general,  Cimon,  who  died,  as  he 
had  always  lived,  opposing  the  power  of  Persia.  Two 
years  later  she  was  humbled  on  the  field  of  Coroneia, 
where  she  lost  the  flower  of  her  youth  and  all  her  in- 
fluence in  Bceotia.  The  cities  of  Euboea  followed  the 
example  set  by  Bceotia,  but  with  less  success. 

It  was  in  these  days  so  dark  for  Athens  that  the 
ability  of  Pericles  shone  forth.  It  was  his  steady  hand 
that  guided  the  ship  of  state  safely  in  her  dangerous 
course.  It  was  through  his  far-sighted  policy  and  con- 
summate statesmanship,  that  finally  (445  b.c.)  a  peace  of 
thirty  years  was  concluded  between  the  diflferent  powers 
of  Greece,  and  a  treaty  entered  into  with  Persia, 

For  the  next  ten  years  an  almost  unbroken  quiet 
reigned  at  Athens.  Occupations  of  peace  were  followed. 


64 


A 1  HENS  A  T  PEA  CE. 


Commerce  thrived.  LearniDg  and  the  fine  arts  flourished. 
Beautiful  buildings  were  erected,  and  adorned  with 
exquisite  sculptures  and  paintings,  which  the  world  has 
never  ceased  to  admu-e.  All  who  excelled  in  literature 
and  arts  resorted  here  for  mutual  improvement.  Her 
government  was  a  truly  democratic  one,  and  her  gates 
open  to  alL 


•i 

I 


CHAPTER  XIV, 


Athens;  hek  Buildings  and  Fortifications. 

Athens  was  situated  about  four  miles  from  the  sea, 
between  two  small  rivers,  the  Cephissus  on  the  west, 
the  IlisBus  on  the  east.  The  beauty  of  the  city  was 
chiefly  owing  to  its  public  buildings.  At  this  time  it 
contained  about  100,000  inhabitants.  It  consisted  of 
two  distinct  parts ;  viz.,  the  city  (astu)  proper,  and  the 
three  harbor  towns.  The  city  proper  was  also  divided 
into  the  Acropolis  (upper  city)  and  the  lower  city. 
Both  the  city  proper  and  the  harbor  towns  were  sur- 
rounded by  walls.     (See  Chapter  IX.,  last  paragraph.) 

The  Acropolis  was  a  steep  rock,  near  the  centre  of 
the  city  proper,  150  feet  high,  1150  feet  long,  and  500 
feet  broad.  Before  the  Persian  invasions,  it  had  been 
inhabited  like  the  city  proper,  but  subsequently  it  was 
appropriated  entirely  to  the  worship  of  the  guardian 
gods  and  goddesses  of  Athens,  especially  to  Athena 
(Minerva).  The  only  approach  to  the  Acropolis  was 
on  the  western  side,  by  a  flight  of  magnificent  marble 
steps,  seventy  feet  broad,  at  the  head  of  which  stood 
the  Propylsea,  or  "  The  Entrances,"  erected  under  the 
direction  of  Pericles.  It  was  built  wholly  of  the  finest 
marble,  and  was  a  fitting  entrance  to  the  beautiful 
works  within.  The  finest  building  on  the  Acropolis 
was  the  Parthenon,  the  greatest  work  of  Greek  archi- 
tecture.   It  was  erected  in  honor  of  the  virgin  (Parthe- 


66 


BUILDINGS  AT  ATHENS. 


nos)  Athena,  the  guardian  goddess  of  the  city.  Within 
the  Parthenon  was  a  large  statue  of  Athena,  made  of 
gold  and  ivory.  Its  height  was  forty  feet.  The  goddess 
was  represented  standing  with  a  spear  in  her  left  hand 
and  an  image  of  victory  in  her  right.  Another  magnif- 
icent building  was  the  Erechtheium,  or  temple  of  Erech- 
theus,  a  god  who,  with  Athena,  was  the  protecting 
deity  of  Athens.  There  was  also  on  the  Acropolis  an 
immense  statue  of  Athena  in  bronze.  It  was  called 
Athena  Fromachos,  because  it  represented  the  goddess 
armed  and  ready  for  battle.  It  towered  above  the  Par- 
thenon, and  the  crest  of  its  helmet  could  be  seen  off 
the  promontory  of  Sunium  by  sailors  as  they  ap- 
proached the  city.  This  statue  was  in  a  good  state  of 
preservation  900  years  after  (400  a.d.),  and  frightened 
away  one  of  the  barbarian  kings  who  came  to  attack 
Athens.  Immediately  in  front  of  the  Propylaja  on  the 
right  of  one  entering,  was  the  temple  of  Nike  ApteroB 
(wingless  victory),  erected  in  commemoration  of  the 
victory  of  Cimon  at  Eurymed^n 

The  Theseium  was  situated  on  a  hill  to  the  north-west 
of  the  Acropolis,  and  was  built  to  receive  the  bones  of 
Theseus,  which  Cimon  brought  from  Scyros,  in  469  b.c. 
It  is  the  best  preserved  of  all  the  temples  of  ancient 
Athens.  The  temple  of  Olympian  Zeus  was  a  gigantic 
structure,  in  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  city,  near  the 
Ilissus. 

Directly  west  of  the  Acropolis  was  the  Areiopagus, 
or  Mars'  hill,  so  called  because  Mars  (Ares)  was  tried 
here  for  murder  by  the  assembled  gods.  A  senate  met 
here  called  the  Council  of  the  Areiopagus.  From  this 
hill  the  Apostle  Paul  preached  to  the  Athenians.  The 
Pnyx,  or  place  for  holding  the  public  assemblies  of  the 


FORTIFICATIONS  OF  ATHENS.  67 

Athenians,  was  on  the  side  of  a  low  rockv  hill  of  the 
same  name,  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  to"  the  west  of 
the   Acropolis.     There   still    stands   a   solid    block   of 
granite  hewn   out  of  the   hill,  called  the  Bema,  from 
which  the  Atlienian  orators  addressed  the  people    Near 
the  base  of  these  three  hills  (Acro,>olis,  Areiopaous, 
and  l„yx)  was  the  Agora,  or  market-place,  -  a  lar^re 
square  where  the  Athenians  transacted  their  business!' 
The  Theatre  of  Dionysus    (Bacchus)  occupied   the 
slope  at  the  south-eastern  extremity  of  the  Acropolife 
The  rows  of  seats  ascended  in  curves  one  above  another 
as  they  do  in  our  modern  theatres,  and  were  cut  out 
of  the  solid  rock  of  the  hill.     It  was  large  enou-h  to 
accommodate  all  the  citizens  of  Athens,   and    many 
strangers  besides. 

Outside  of  the  walls  of  the  city,  about  a  mile  to  the 
west,  were  the  gardens  of  the  Academy,  where  the 
great  scholars  of  Atliens  walked  and  conversed. 

Pheidias  (490-432  n.c.)  was  the  great  sculi)tor  and 
artist  of  tliis  age.  lie  suj)*  rintended  all  the  works  of 
art  on  the  Acropolis,  and  built,  with  his  own  hands,  the 
statue  of  Athena,  wliich  was  within  the  Parthenon. 

The  city  harbors  were  connected  to  the  city  proper 
by  walls.  There  were  three  harbors;  viz.,  Peir^eus, 
Munychia,  and  Phalerum.  The  Phaleric  wall,  connect-  ^ 
ing  the  city  i>roi)er  with  Phalerum,  was  four  miles  long. 
The  Long  Walls,  connecting  the  city  proper  wit1i 
Peira}eus  and  Munychia,  were  four  and  one  Iialf  miles 
long,  running  j)arallel  at  a  distance  of  550  feet  from 
each  other.  They  were  sixty  feet  high,  and  tliick 
enough  for  two  chariots  to  drive  abreast  on  them.  Tlie 
street  formed  by  tliese  Long  Walls  was  lined  with 
buildings  on  either  side. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
The  Causes  of  the  Peloponnesian  Wab, 


These  were  twofold,  general  and  particular. 

The  general  causes  were  the  jealousy  and  hatred  of 
the  cities  of  Greece,  especially  of  Sparta,  caused  by  the 
constant  prosperity  and  unparalleled  growth  of  Athens. 

The  particular  causes  were  numerous,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  we  shall  proceed  to  enumerate. 

Troubles  between  Corinth  and  Corcyra.  Corcyra 
was  an  island  of  great  prosperity  and  wealth,  which 
had  been  originally  settled  by  the  Corinthians.  Fifteen 
miles  north  of  the  Acrocoraunian  i)romontory  was 
situated  Epidamnus  (afterwards  Dyrrhachium,  and  now 
Durazzo),  founded  by  Corcyra.  Epidamnus  had  a  lucra- 
tive commerce  with  Illyricum,  and  was  full  of  slaves 
and  an  industrious  population  of  foreigners.  The  noble 
families  kept  aloof  from  the  common  classes,  and  quar- 
rels were  constantly  arising  between  the  two  parties. 
Finally  the  former,  having  been  driven  from  the  city, 
sought  aid  of  the  Illyrians,  that  they  might  force  a 
return  to  their  homes.  The  Ejiidamnians  accordingly 
applied  to  Corcyra  for  help,  but  were  refused  on  the 
ground  that  the  Corcyrajans  favored  the  noble  families. 
Corinth  was  then  appealed  to,  with  better  success.  She 
immediately  sent  an  army  to  strengthen  the  popular 
party,  and  succor  the  dty  in  such  a  dangerous  position. 
This  step  was  a  signal  for  the  outbreak  of  war.    The 


BATTLE   OF  SYBOTA. 


69 


Corcyraeans  had  no  intention  of  allowing  their  colony 
to  pass  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  They  met  the 
Corintliian  fleet,  sent  to  assist  Epidamnus,  off  Cape  Ac- 
tium,  and  defeated  it.  On  the  same  day  Epidamnus 
fell  into  their  hands,  so  that  the  CorcyraBans  were  now 
masters  of  the  whole  Ionian  sea.  These  events  hap- 
pened in  the  autumn  of  435  B.C. 

The  next  two  years  were  spent  by  both  parties  in 
active  preparations.  The  Corcyraeans,  fearing  that  they 
could  not  meet  single-handed  the  Corinthians,  asked 
Athens  to  form  with  them  an  offensive  and  defensive 
alliance.  The  Athenian  assembly  refused  to  do  this, 
but  decided  to  conclude  a  defensive  alliance  with  them ; 
i.e.,  Athens  promised  to  help  Corcyra  in  case  her  ter- 
ritory was  actually  invaded  by  an  enemy.  A  fleet  of 
only  ten  ships  was  sent  into  the  Ionian  sea. 

In  the  spring  of  432  B.C.,  the  Corinthians  despatched 
a  fleet  of  150  triremes  to  seek  out  the  enemy  in  his 
own  waters.  They  sailed,  without  meeting  any  op- 
position, as  far  as  Cape  Cheimerium.  Near  by  this 
cape,  off  the  island  of  Sybota,  the  Corcyraean  fleet, 
with  the  ten  Athenian  triremes,  was  stationed.  Here 
a  battle  was  fought,  —  the  greatest  battle  that  had  up 
to  this  time  taken  ])lace  between  Greek  ships.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  day  the  Corinthians  were  decidedly 
getting  the  better  of  the  contest,  when  they  suddenly 
gave  way  and  retreated.  The  reason  was,  that  they 
descried  in  the  distance  a  squadron  of  Athenian  triremes 
approaching;  for  the  Athenians  had  sent  twenty  ships 
after  their  fii*st  ten,  to  give  more  efticient  aid  if  neces- 
Bary.  The  mere  sight  of  these  Athenian  vessels  dis- 
couraged the  Corinthians,  and  thus  the  fleet  of  Corcyra 
was  saved. 


70 


CONGRESS  AT  SPARTA. 


The  results  of  this  ensfasfomcnt  were  of  the  c^'e.'^tcst 
importance.  The  Corinthians  coiiM  never  forget  that 
the  Athenians  had  torn  from  tlieir  hands  a  well- 
eamed  victory;  and  peace,  which  liad  been  fraaght 
with  such  advantages  to  Athens,  was  virtually  at  an 
end. 

On  the  isthmus  that  connects  Pallene  with  the  main- 
land of  Thrace  was  situated  Potidaea,  a  colony  of 
Corinth.  This  city  had  joined  the  Athenian  alliance, 
without,  however,  being  on  unfnendly  terms  with 
Corinth.  After  the  battle  of  Sybota,  she  was  obll;j:ed 
to  side  either  with  Athens  or  Corinth.  Perdiccas,  king 
of  Macedonia,  who  was  an  enemy  of  Athens,  incited 
Potidjea  to  side  with  Corinth  and  revolt  from  Athens. 
This  was  another  immediate  cause  of  stirring  up  feel- 
insrs  of  hatred  between  Athens  and  Corinth. 

The  winter  of  432-431  n.c.  was  employed  by  Corinth 
in  working  uj)  the  feelings  of  Sparta  to  such  a  ])itch 
that  she  would  be  not  only  willing,  but  eager  to  enter 
into  hostile  relations  with  Athens.  In  December,  a 
meeting  of  all  who  had  any  comi)laints  to  ofler  against 
the  policy  of  Athens  was  called  by  Sparta. 

In  this  meeting  the  principal  complainants  were 
^irina  and  Meijara.  The  former  accused  the  Atheni- 
ans  of  withholding  from  them  promised  independence ; 
while  the  latter  charged  them  with  having  passed  a 
decree  that  excluded  them  from  all  ports  and  markets 
in  the  Athenian  dominion,  thus  destroying  their  pros- 
perity. The  Corinthians  reserved  their  speech  to  the 
last  In  it  they  endeavored  to  show  that  honor  and 
duty  demanded  of  Sparta  resolute  and  speedy  action ; 
that  the  Athenians  were  grasping,  and  always  maturing 
some  plan  for  further  increiise  of  teiritory ;  that  they 


THE  PELOPONNESIAN   WAR. 


71 


were  from  day  to  day  growing  more  dangerous  to  the 
Peloponnesians,  and  it  was  high  time  to  check  their 
power.  The  result  of  this  meeting  was,  that  Sparta 
with  her  Peloponnesian  allies  resolved  ui)on  war. 

The  strucrLcle  which  now  commenced  is  known  as 
the  Peloponuesian  war.  It  lasted  twenty-seven  years 
(431-404  B.C.),  and  extended  over  almost  the  whole 
of  the  Greek  world.  The  war  was  virtually  a  struggle 
between  Athens  and  Sparta  for  the  supremacy;  between 
the  Ionian  and  Dorian  races ;  between  democracy  and 
oligarchy. 

The  J  lower  of  Athens  lay  chiefly  in  her  fleet,  that  of 
Sparta  in  lier  land  forces.  The  allies  of  Athens  were 
subject-allies,  who  accepted  her  leadership  more  from 
compulsion  than  choice.  Sparta's  allies  were  jjurely 
voluntary,  regarding  their  interests  as  identical  with 
hers. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

The   Peloponnesian  War.    1st   Period, 

431-421  B.C. 


In  this  war  the  allies  of  Sparta  were  the  Corinthians, 
the  Boeotians  (except  PhUaBoe),  the  Megarians,  the 
Phocians,  the  Locrians,  the  Arcadians,  and  Eleans. 

The  subject-allies  of  Athens  were  Euba3a,  Chios, 
Lesbos,  Samos,  Naxos,  Paros,  all  the  Greek  cities  of 
Asia  Minor  and  on  the  coast  of  Thrace,  Platoeae,  Nau- 
pactus,  Zacynthus,  and  Corcyra.  The  Thessalians  and 
Acarnanians  were  friendly  to  her,  and  also  the  Ionian 
cities  in  Sicily  and  Italy.  Besides  her  subject-allies, 
Athens  held  at  this  time,  as  part  of  her  own  territory, 
JEgiiia,  Scyros,  Leninos,  Imbros,  and  the  Chersonesus. 

The  finances  of  Atliens  at  the  beginning  of  this  war 
were  very  great.  She  received  from  her  subject-allies 
an  annual  tribute  of  over  SGOO,000,  and  from  other 
sources  between  one  and  two  million  dollars.  She  had 
also  gathered  in  her  treasury  over  $G,000,000,  and  in 
her  temples  deposits  and  oiferings  of  great  value. 

The  Peloponnesian  war  may  be  divided  into  three 
periods:  1st.  From  the  beginning  until  the  Peace  of 
[Nicias,  —  ten  years,  431-421  B.C.;  2d.  From  the 
Peace  of  Nicias  to  its  rupture  by  Sparta,  —  eight 
years,  421-413  B.C.;  3d.  From  the  rupture  of  the 
Peace  of  Nicias  to  the  capture  of  Athens  by  Ly- 
Bander,  —  nine  years,  413-404  B.C. 


ATTACK   UPON  PLAT^^. 


73 


First  Year,  431  b.c.  —  Before  any  open  hostilities  on 
the  part  of  Sparta,  an  attack  was  made  by  the  Thebans 
upon  Plata30B.  Plata?a3  was  a  democratic  city,  and  a 
special  friend  of  Athens.  The  other  Boeotian  cities, 
which  were  governed  by  oligarchies,  modelled  after  the 
government  of  Sparta,  were  her  bitter  enemies. 

On  the  eve  of  the  4th  of  April,  431  B.C.,  during  a 
religious  festival,  a  body  of  300  Thebans  was  admitted 
within  the  gates  of  the  city  by  some  friends.  They 
took  up  their  position  in  the  market-place,  and  sum- 
moned by  a  herald  all  citizens,  who  were  of  like  politi- 
cal opinion  as  themselves,  to  join  them.  Meanwhile 
the  Platajans,  having  recovered  from  their  first  fright, 
assembled  in  sufficient  numbers  and  attacked  the  The- 
bans just  before  daybreak.  The  Thebans  turned  and 
fled,  and  most  of  them,  mistaking  the  door  of  a  large 
granary  for  one  of  the  city  gates,  rushed  in  and  were 
captured.  A  reinforcement  sent  by  Thebes  now  arrived 
outside  the  walls  of  the  city.  The  Platoeans  promised, 
if  they  would  retire,  to  give  up  the  prisoners  just 
taken;  but  when  the  Thebans  withdrew,  instead  of 
keeping  their  promise,  they  killed  in  cold  blood  all  the 
prisonere  (180  in  number).  Thus  treason  and  murder 
in  that  night  of  horrors  opened  the  war  in  Greece. 

As  soon  as  the  events  at  Plata;a3  were  known  in 
Sparta,  the  Peloponnesian  army  under  Archidamus  was 
sent  (June,  431  b.c.)  into  Attica.  The  inhabitants  were 
obliged  to  leave  their  fields  and  take  refuge  within  the 
walls  of  Athens  and  Peira^eus.  Every  building,  nook, 
and  corner  of  the  city  was  crowded.  It  was  hard  for 
them  to  remain  inactive  within  the  city,  while  the 
enemy  were  pillaging  their  beautiful  country  seats  and 
forms.     But  Pericles  did  not  think  it  the  best  policy  to 


74 


THE   PLAGUE   IN  ATTICA. 


carry  on  the  war  in  Attica.  Tie  wisliecl  to  inflict  the 
same  injury  upon  the  homes  of  the  Peloponucsians 
that,  they  were  inflict ini;  in  Attica.  Accordingly  a 
combined  fleet  of  Athenians  and  Corcyrajans  sailed 
around  the  PJoi)onne.sus,  stoi)i)ing  at  various  places 
to  ravaije  and  lav  waste  the  country. 

Archidamus,  after  remaining  Ave  or  six  weeks  in 
Attica,  withdrew  and  disbanded  his  forces. 

Tlie  SECOXD  YKAii  (430  B.C.),  the  Spartans  again  in- 
vaded Attica.  But  a  still  greater  calamity  visited  the 
Athenians.  The  plague  broke  out,  and,  owing  to  the 
crowded  condition  of  the  inhabitants,  it  spread  with 
great  rajjidity.  To  draw  off  some  of  the  ovcrcrow<led 
population,  Tericles  fltted  out  a  fleet,  and  connnanding 
it  in  person  sailed  to  the  Peloponnesus  to  renew  the 
ravages  of  the  previous  year.  On  his  return,  the  Athe- 
nians, in  their  despair  at  seeing  so  many  dying  around 
them,  accused  him  of  being  the  cause  of  their  great 
sufferings.  Ilis  influence  over  tlie  people  was  gone. 
He  was  even  accused  of  appropriating  to  his  own  use 
the  public  money,  and  fined  a  large  sum.  He  gave  up 
his  command,  and  became  for  the  first  time  for  many 
years  a  private  citizen.  But  sufferings  still  awaited 
him.  The  pestilence  made  fearful  raids  into  his  circle 
of  friends  and  relatives.  His  eldest  son  died  ;  his  sister 
was  taken  away ;  and  many  others  who  had  been  his 
companions  and  advisers  were  cut  off*.  When  the 
youngest  and  best  beloved  son  fell  a  victim  to  the 
scourge,  the  father's  heart  was  broken.  A  lingering 
fever  seized  him,  and  he  was  fast  approaching  his  end. 
His  last  words  were,  "  What  I  pride  myself  most  upon 
is,  that  no  Athenian  has  ever  mourned  on  my  account." 
The  war  had  lasted  for  two  years  and  six  months  when 


SIEGE  OF  PLATjE^, 


75 


Pericles  died.  He  was  buried  near  the  last  restins:- 
place  of  the  Athenians  who  had  fallen  in  the  service  of 
their  country. 

In  the  THIRD  YEAR  (429  B.C.)  the  Spartans  directed 
their  campaign  against  PlataBae.  The  inhabitants  made 
a  vigorous  resistance,  and,  although  their  garrison 
numbered  only  480,  defied  the  whole  Peloponnesian 
army.  The  Spartans  began  by  shutting  up  every  out- 
let of  the  town  with  a  palisade  of  wood ;  then  erected 
against  this  a  mound  of  earth  and  stone,  forming  an 
inclined  plane  up  which  they  could  march.  The  Pla- 
tajans  undermined  this  mound,  and  thus  defeated  its 
purpose.  They  also  built  a  new  wall  within  the  old 
one,  so  that,  if  the  latter  was  taken,  the  Spartans  would 
Btill  be  no  nearer  the  possession  of  the  city.  Thereupon 
the  Spartans  surrounded  the  city  with  a  double  wall, 
thus  shutting  off  the  Platajans  from  any  communication 
with  the  outer  world.  For  two  years  they  endured 
this  blockade,  when  about  half  of  the  garrison  managed 
to  escape.  The  remainder  were  reduced  to  aosolute 
starvation,  and  were  obliged  to  surrender.  They  were 
all  put  to  death  by  the  Spartans.  Plata?ae  was  razed  to 
the  ground,  and  blotted  from  the  map  of  Greece. 

The  FOUKTn  year  (428  b.c.)  was  marked  by  the 
revolt  of  Mytilene,  capital  of  Lesbos.  The  inhabitants 
Bent  to  Sparta  for  assistance,  which  was  gladly  given. 

In  this  year  the  Spartans  invaded  Attica  a  third 
time,  and,  to  retaliate,  the  Athenian  fleet  ravaged  the 
coast  of  the  Peloponnesus. 

In  the  FIFTH  YEAR  (427  B.C.),  Attica  was  invaded  for 
the  fourth  time.  In  the  early  spring  of  this  year  the 
Spartan  fleet  set  sail  to  succor  Mytilene,  but  arrived 
there  too  late,  for  they  found  that  the  city  had  already 


76 


SURRENDER   OF  MYTILENE, 


surrendered  to  the  Athenians.     The  ringleaders  of  the 
revolt  were  sent  to  Athens,  and  the  fate  of  all  the  in- 
habitants  was  to  be  decided  there  by  the  popular  as- 
sembly.   Cleon,  a  tanner  and  low  demagogue,  persuaded 
this  assembly  to  vote  that  all  the  men  of  Mytilene 
shnild  be  put  to  death,  and  the  women  and  children 
sd.d  into  slavery.     A  galley  was  immediately  sent  to 
the  Athenian  commander,  stationed  at  Mytilene,  with 
orders  to  this  effect.   The  next  day,  however,  the  Athe- 
nians repented  of  their  rash  and  cruel  vote,  and  re- 
scinded it;  whereupon  another  galley  was  despatched 
in  all  haste,  with  instructions  to  overtake  the  other  if 
possible.   The  crew  worked  night  and  day  with  scarcely 
any  rest,  and  managed  to  arrive  at  Mytilene  just  as  the 
commander  was  proceeding  to  execute  the  orders  con- 
tained in  the  first  despatch.     The  inhabitants  of  Myti- 
lene were  saved,  but  the  walls  of  their  city  were  razed 
to  the  ground,  and  their  fleet  given  up  to  the  Athenians. 
The  ringleaders,  who  had  been  sent  to  Athens,  were 
tried,  convicted,  and  put  to  death. 

During  this  year  the  Peloponnesians  attempted  to 
recover  Corcyra  from  the  control  of  Athens,  and  change 
Its  government  to  an  oligarchy.  They  were  unsucces^'s- 
ful,  and  the  popular  party,  protected  by  the  Athenians, 
committed  every  kind  of  excess.  The  aristocracy  was 
neariy  exterminated,  only  500  escaping.  It  was  in  thig 
year  that  Plata^ae  surrendered.    (See  previous  page.) 

In  the  SIXTH  YEAR  (426  b.c),  earthquakes  prevented 
the  Spartans  from  making  their  usual  invasion.  The 
plague  again  broke  out  at  Athens.  A  purification  of 
the  island  of  Delos  was  performed  to  appease  the  wrath 
of  Apollo,  who  was  imagined  to  be  the  cause  of  the 
scourge.     This  island  was  the  birth-place  of  Apollo; 


OCCUPATION  OF  PYLOS. 


77 


all  the  bodies  buried  there  were  removed,  and  a  festival 
was  celebrated  in  great  pomp. 

In  the  SEVENTH  year  (425  b.c.)  the  Spartans  invaded 
Attica  for  the  fifth  time.  They  remained  but  a  few 
days,  for  their  assistance  was  needed  in  Messenia  to 
expel  the  Athenians  who  had  established  a  footing  at 
Pylos. 

The  harbor  of  Pylos  (Bay  of  Navarino)  was  the  best 
in  the  Peloponnesus,  but  had  been  neglected  through 
some  strange  oversight  on  the  part  of  Sparta.  Demos- 
thenes, an  Athenian  general,  took  possession  of  this 
harbor  with  only  five  ships  and  200  men.  The  Spartans 
were  immediately  aroused  to  indignation  by  the  bold 
encroachment  upon  their  territory.  They  sent  a  fleet 
of  forty-three  ships  filled  with  troops  to  drive  the 
enemy  from  Pylos.  Demosthenes,  instead  of  being 
overcome  by  fear,  acted  with  resolute  presence  of 
mind.  He  despatched  two  ships  for  aid,  and  with  his 
few  soldiers  kept  the  Spartans  from  landing. 

Brasidas,  who  commanded  the  Spartans,  in  vain 
attempted  to  force  his  way  on  shore.  The  Athenians 
stood  firm  as  a  wall ;  and  after  two  days  he  was  com- 
pelled to  give  up  the  fight  for  the  present.  Shortly 
after  Athenian  reinforcements  arrived.  A  hard  naval 
battle  ensued  in  the  harbor,  which  resulted  in  favor  of 
the  Athenians.  The  Spartans  were  now  entirely  cut 
off  from  their  friends,  without  provisions,  on  a  rocky 
desolate  island  (Sphacterik)  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bay 
of  Pylos.  For  the  sake  of  obtaining  provisions  they 
gave  up  all  their  triremes,  sixty  in  number,  to  the  Athe- 
nians. Sparta  was  now  thoroughly  frightened.  Four 
hundred  of  her  highest-born  youths  were  on  this 
island.     She  saw  no  way  out  of  the  difficulty  except 


78 


CAPTURE   OF  SPHACTERIA. 


BATTLE    OF  DELIUM. 


79 


through  peace.  Accordingly  ambassadors  were  sent  to 
Athens  to  sue  for  peace,  but  the  Athenians  were  so 
exorbitant  in  their  demands  that  no  terms  could  be 
agi'eed  upon.  The  war  then  recommenced  in  the  Bay 
of  Pylos.  But  the  Spartans  did  not  surrender,  as 
expected  from  day  to  day.  The  citizens  at  Athena 
began  to  complain  bitterly,  and  when  fresh  troops  were 
asked  for  they  repented  at  not  having  come  to  terms 
of  [)eace  with  Sparta.  Cleon  accused  the  officei-s  of 
incapacity  and  cowardice,  and  declared  if  he  were 
general  he  would  take  Sphacteria  at  once.  The  Athe- 
nian assembly,  amused  at  the  idea  of  a  tanner  being  in 
command,  took  him  at  his  word.  Cleon  tried  to  evade 
the  responsibility,  but  to  no  purpose.  Seeing  that  he 
must  go,  he  assumed  a  bold  face  and  declared  that  he 
would  bring  the  Spartans  from  Sphacteria,  or  put  an 
end  to  them  there,  within  twenty  days.  Fortune  favored 
Cleon  in  au  extraordinary  manner.  Demosthenes  had 
already  prepared  a  plan  for  an  attack  upon  the  island. 
It  was  his  foresight,  aided  by  the  accidental  burning  of 
the  woods  on  Sphacteria,  rather  than  any  generalship 
of  Cleon  that  was  the  cause  of  victory.  The  figlit  was 
a  hard  one,  and  lasted  all  day,  but  finally  the  few  sur- 
viving Spartans  surrendered.  Cleon  and  Demosthenes 
arrived  at  Athens  within  twenty  days  after  the  former 
had  departed. 

Sparta  was  deeply  humbled  by  this  defeat,  and  lost 
her  [)restige  in  battle.  It  had  been  hitherto  deemed  an 
impossibility  that  the  descendants  of  Leonidas  could 
surrender  with  arms  in  hand.  Again  the  Spartans 
asked  for  peace;  but  the  Athenians,  who  had  recovered 
their  good  spirits,  were  as  exorbitant  as  ever  in  their 
demands. 


The  power  of  Cleon  was  now  greater  than  ever.  He 
was  the  hero  of  the  day  and  the  benefactor  of  the  city. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  year  (424  b.c.) 
the  Athenians  were  everywhere  victorious.  Nicias, 
an  Athenian  general,  captured  the  island  of  Cythera, 
and  placed  garrisons  there,  which  were  a  continual 
source  of  annoyance  to  the  Spartans.  The  success  of 
the  Athenians  in  the  Peloponnesus  encouraged  them 
to  make  attempts  u])on  Boeotia.  Thirty-two  thousand 
troops  crossed  into  Boeotia  to  Delium.  The  Boeotians 
had  assembled  a  large  force  at  the  neighboring  town  of 
Tanagra,  and  they  now  advanced  upon  the  Athenians. 
A  terrible  battle  ensued.  The  Boeotians  by  making  a 
very  effective  use  of  their  cavalry  thoroughly  defeated 
the  Athenians.  A  thousand  Athenian  dead  lay  upon 
the  field.  Thus  the  triumphant  pride  of  Athens  had 
met  with  a  most  decisive  rebufi*. 

Sj)arta  began  now  to  recover  her  courage.  Brasidas, 
her  leading  general,  was  a  man  of  marked  ability,  a 
fervent  patriot,  and  inspired  with  the  belief-  that 
Sparta's  proper  position  was  at  the  head  of  Greece. 
He  saw  that  Athens  would  receive  a  severe  blow  to 
her  prosperity,  if  he  could  get  control  of  her  possessions 
in  Thrace.  Accordingly  he  collected  an  army,  and, 
marching  up  through  Thessalia  and  Macedonia,  ad- 
vanced upon  Amphipolis,  a  colony  of  Athens  on  the 
river  Strymon.  It  was  a  rough  winter's  night,  during 
which  the  snow  fell.  No  one  expected  an  attack.  The 
])lace  was  easily  taken,  and  a  large  number  of  citizens 
fell  into  his  hands. 

The  fall  of  Amphipolis  made  a  marked  impression 
Athens  was  deeply  wounded,  and  her  dominion  on  the 
coast  of  Thrace  shaken. 


K 


80 


PEACE  OF  NICIAS. 


Ninth  year  (423  b.c).  The  Athenians  were  thor- 
oughly disheartened,  and  in  turn  began  to  propose 
peace.  The  Spartans,  anxious  to  get  back  the  prisoners 
captured  at  Sphacteria,  were  equally  desirous  of  a 
peace.  A  year's  truce  was  agreed  upon,  to  give  time 
for  further  negotiations. 

Tenth  year  (422  b.c.).  The  year's  truce  did  not 
bring  about  any  results,  and  at  the  expiration  of  it 
Cleon  was  sent  to  Thrace  to  check  the  rapid  victories 
of  Brasidas.  He  advanced  against  Amphipolis,  near 
which  place  the  two  generals  met,  and  in  the  battle 
which  ensued  both  were  killed.  The  Athenian  forces 
were  defeated. 

In  the  death  of  Brasidas  and  Cleon,  the  two  chief 
obstacles  to  peace  were  removed ;  and  in  April,  421  b.c., 
a  truce  of  fifty  years  was  concluded,  called  the  Peacb 

OF  NiCIAS. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

pELOPOi^rNEsiAN  Wab.    Second  Peeiod,  421-413  B.a 

The  Sicilian  Expedition. 

Fob  the  first  few  years  of  this  period  numerous 
alliances  were  formed  and  broken  by  the  different  states 
of  Greece.  Sparta  quarrelled  with  Argos.  The  two 
cities  met  in  battle  on  the  field  of  Mantineia,  418  b.c. 
Here  the  Spartans  were  victorious. 

Far  more  important  than  these  troubles  in  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus was  the  project  of  Alcibiades,  of  conquering 
Sicily.  Alcibiades  was  born  450  b.c.  He  lost  his 
father  at  an  early  age,  and  was  adopted  by  Pericles.  He 
was  very  handsome,  and  of  great  wealth;  a  slave  to 
every  kind  of  excess,  but  of  marked  abilities.  He  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Delium  (424  b.c),  and  there  saved 
the  life  of  his  instructor,  Socrates.  At  the  death  of 
Cleon  (422  b.c.),  Alcibiades  became  the  leading  man 
at  Athens.  In  politics  he  was  opposed  to  Nicias.  He 
was  an  accomplished  orator  and  general,  but  the  want 
of  principle  rendered  his  talents  ruinous  both  to  himself 
and  his  country.  His  pride  and  arrogance  were  exces- 
sive, his  ambition  unbounded.  He  wished  not  merely 
to  outshine  his  fellow-citizens,  but  to  outstrip  all  Greece 
in  glory  and  splendor. 

Kotvvithstanding  the  extent  of  the  personal  influence 
of  Alcibiades,  he  could  not  bring  about  a  union  among 
4*  » 


82 


EGESTA  AND  SE LINUS, 


the  different  political  parties  in  Athens.  The  young 
men  all  imitated  him,  and  considered  a  wild  and  reck- 
less life  of  debauchery  fashionable  and  aristocratic; 
while  the  elder  generation  was  filled  with  indignation 
against  this  corrupter  of  morals.  Thus,  although  the 
power  of  Athens  was  great,  and  feared  abroad,  although 
her  revenues  were  vast,  her  naval  dominion  absolute, 
and  her  enemies  weaker  than  ever  belbre,  yet  the 
real  strength  and  vigor  of  the  state  —  the  virtue  and 
morals  of  its  citizens  —  were  in  a  sad  condition. 

Such  was  the  state  of  affairs  when  (416  b.c.)  envoys 
arrived  from  Egesta,  to  seek  aid  ajjainst  the  neiirliborinir 
city  of  Selinus.  These  two  cities  had  had  a  quarrel ; 
the  latter  obtained  aid  from  Syracuse.  Alcibiades  was 
very  earnest  to  help  the  Egestaeans.  fie  saw  in  Sicily 
an  opportunity  of  gratifying  his  ambition,  and  at  the 
same  time  of  replenishing  his  wasted  fortunes  with 
rich  spoils.  Nicias  and  his  party  were  violently  op- 
posed to  this  enterprise.  TJxiy  persuaded  the  Athe- 
nians to  send  ambassadors  to  Egesta  to  find  out  whether 
the  Egestajans  could  furnish  much  money  for  the  war. 
The  ambassadors  were  entertained  royally  at  the  houses 
of  the  citizens,  where  gold  and  silver  plate  was  dis- 
played in  abundance.  They  were  entirely  deceived 
however,  for  the  same  plate  was  carried  from  house 
to  house. 

The  glowing  accounts  of  the  ambassadors,  when  they 
returned  home,  about  the  wealth  of  Egesta,  removed 
all  doubt  from  the  minds  of  the  Athenians  as  to  the 
expediency  of  carrying  on  a  war  in  Sicily. 

Nicias,  Alcibiades,  and  Lamachus  were  appointed 
commanders  of  the  expedition. 

A  short  time  before  the  expedition  set  sail,  on  a 


MUTILATION  OF   THE  IIERMJ2. 


83 


single  night  (May  10,  415  B.C.),  the  marble  statues  of 
the  god  Hermes^  (Mercury),  which  were  in  front  of  all 
houses  and  sanctuaries,  were  found  broken  to  pieces. 
The  people  were  horrified,  and  demanded  the  speedy 
punishment  of  the  perpetrator  of  such  a  crime.  Alci- 
biades was  suspected.  He  asked  for  an  immediate  trial, 
that  he  might  prove  his  innocence  before  he  started  for 
Sicily.  But  his  enemies  managed  to  postpone  the  trial 
until  he  had  gone. 

In  the  beginning  of  July  the  preparations  for  the 
expedition  were  completed.  The  fieet  sailed  from  the 
Peirajeus  amid  great  rejoicing.  The  first  rendezvous  of 
the  Athenians  was  at  Corcyra.  Here  assembled  13G 
triremes  and  some  7,000  troops.  From  Corcyra  they 
sailed  to  southern  Italy,  and  the  army  disembarking 
encamped  near  Rhegium.  Now  for  the  first  time  they 
found  out  that  they  had  been  tricked  by  the  EgestaBans, 
and  that  their  wealth  was  a  mere  fiction.  A  council  of 
war  was  then  called.  It  was  decided  to  seek  new  allies 
among  the  Greek  cities  in  Sicily,  and  attack  Syracuse. 

The  fleet  then  sailed  southwards,  and  took  possession 
of  Catana,  which  became  its  head-quarters.  It  had 
scarcely  arrived  here  when  the  Athenian  vessel  of  state 
appeared  with  orders  that  Alcibiades  should  return 
home  for  trial,  on  account  of  the  mutilation  of  the 
Ilerma).  When  the  vessel  touched  at  Thurii  on  its 
return,  Alcibiades  managed  to  escape.  At  Athens  he 
was  condemned  to  death,  his  ])roperty  confiscated,  and 
he  himself  pronounced  accursed. 

Meanwhile  Alcibiades  made  his  way  to  Sparta  and 
infoimed  the  authorities  of  the  plans  of  Athens.    Thus 
the  Spartans  were  enabled  to  counteract  them. 
I  These  statues  were  called  Hermae. 


/ 


84 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SYRACUSE. 


The  Athenians  spent  three  months  at   Catana,   so 
inactive  and  idle  that  the  Syraciisans  began  to  look 
upon  them  with  contempt.     But  Nicias  finally  sent  a 
fjdse  message  to  Syracuse  that  the   Cataneans   were 
tired  of  keeping  the  Athenians,  and  wished  her  aid  in 
expelling  them.     Accordingly  a  large  force  was  de- 
spatched from  Syracuse  to  Catana.     While  this  was  on 
Its  way,  the  Athenian  fleet  sailed  into  the  Great  liar- 
bor  of  Syracuse,  and,  landing  near  the  river  Anapus 
entrenched  itself  there.      As  soon   as  the  Syracusans 
returned  from  Catana,  a  battle  ensued,  which  resulted 
m  favor  of  Nicias.     But  instead  of  taking  advantage 
of  this  victory  he  withdrew  again  to  Catana,  and  there 
spent  the  winter  of  415-414  b.c.  in  idleness. 

The  Syracusans  were  meanwhile  very  active.  They 
fortified  the  city  strongly  by  walls  and  forts.  Ambas- 
sadors were  sent  to  the  Peloponnesus  to  form  alliances 
with  the  cities  there,  and  obtain  what  aid  they  could. 
The  Spartans,  through  the  influence  of  Alcibiades, 
resolved  to  send  an  auxiliary  force  under  command  of 
Gylippus,  a  general  of  gieat  skill  and  activity. 

As  soon  as  spring  opened,  Nicias  began  the  siege  of 
Syracuse  in  earnest.  Syracuse  consisted  at  this  time 
of  two  parts,  an  inner  and  outer  city.  The  former 
comprised  the  island  of  Ortygia,  the  original  city;  the 
latter,  called  afterwards  Achradina,  occupied  higher 
ground,  on  a  peninsula  north  of  Ortygia.  The  island 
of  Ortygia,  on  which  the  modem  city  of  Syracuse  is 
built,  is  about  two  miles  in  circumference,  lying  between 
the  Great  Harbor  on  the  west  and  the  Little  Harbor  on 
the  east,  and  separated  from  the  mainland  by  a  narrow 
channel.  The  Great  Harbor  is  a  fine  bay,  five  miles  in 
circumference.    The  Little  Harbor  was  spacious  enough 


DEATH  OF  LAMACHUS, 


85 


to  receive  a  large  fleet  of  ships.  The  outer  city  was 
defended  on  the  north  and  east  by  the  sea,  which  beat 
against  high  cliffs  and  rocks  with  such  force  that  it  was 
impossible  to  land.  On  the  land  side  it  was  protected 
by  a  high  wall. 

The  Athenian  fleet  landed  at  Leon,  a  little  to  the 
north  of  Syracuse.  Here  the  troops  disembarked  an<l 
marched  immediately  to  the  heights  of  Epipolae,  west 
of  the  city.  These  heights  commanded  the  city,  and 
the  party  that  gained  possession  of  them  would  have 
a  great  advantage.  From  some  strange  oversight  the 
Syracusans  had  neglected  to  occupy  them.  The  Athe- 
nians then  easily  became  masters  of  the  position.  After 
they  had  fortified  themselves  securely  here,  they  built 
further  south  a  circular  fort  called  Syke,  of  consider- 
able strength.  From  this  fort  they  began  to  build  a 
wall  in  a  northerly  and  southerly  direction,  to  cut 
off  the  Syracusans  from  supplies.  The  wall  towards 
the  south  extended  to  the  Great  Harbor;  the  one 
running  northward  towards  the  sea  was  never  com- 
pleted. 

Nicias  had  stationed  the  fleet  in  the  Great  Harbor 
and  nearly  finished  the  wall  when  Lamachus  was  killed 
in  a  skirmish.  Lamachus  was  indispensable  to  Nicias, 
who  relied  much  upon  him  for  advice.  He  possessed 
the  energy  wanting  in  his  superior  commander,  and  his 
death  was  a  great  calamity  to  the  Athenians.  Nicias, 
satisfied  with  the  previous  success  of  his  trqpps,  sud- 
denly  relapsed  into  a  state  of  apathy,  too  inactive  to 
crown  this  success  with  the  surrender  of  the  city. 
Thus  Syracuse,  although  on  the  point  of  giving  up, 
was  saved  for  the  present.  ^ 

At  this  time  Gylippus  arrived  from  Sparta.     As 


86 


ARRIVAL   OF  GYLIPPUS. 


Boon  as  he  placed  his  foot  on  Sicilian  soilf  the  course 
of  the  entire  war  was  changed.  He  crossed  the 
Epipolse,  eluding  without  difficulty  the  careless  Nicias, 
and  entered  Syracuse,  whose  inhabitants  inunedi- 
ately  intrusted  him  with  the  command  of  all  their 
forces. 

The  first  act  of  Gylippus  was  to  send  a  herald  to 
Nicias,  and  command  him  to  depart  with  his  army 
within  five  days.  Upon  the  refusal  to  comply  with 
this  demand,  he  ma<le  himself  master  of  Epipohe,  and 
began  to  build  a  wall  to  intersect  the  Athenian  lines 
on  the  north.  Nicias,  seeing  that  it  would  now  bo 
impossible  to  blockade  the  city,  withdrew  his  forces 
to  the  headland  of  Plemmyrium,  south  of  the  Great 
Harbor.  The  situation  of  the  Athenians  was  becoming 
more  perilous  every  day.  Nicias,  naturally  inclined  to 
look  always  on  the  gloomy  side,  was  poorly  adapted 
to  encourage  his  trooj)S.  Accordingly  many  of  his 
men  began  to  desert,  and  all  were  getting  to  be  dis- 
heartened. 

Nicias  wrote  to  Athens,  begging  for  reinforcements, 
and  that  lie  himself  miglit  be  reUeved  of  the  command. 
The  letter  reached  Athens  in  the  middle  of  the  winter 
of  414-413  B.C.  Although  the  city  was  hard  pressed 
by  the  Spartans,  and  the  citizens  wearied  and  exhausted 
with  the  defence  of  their  walls,  yet  they  resolved  to 
reinforce  Nicias,  but  refused  to  recall  him.  Demos- 
theues  and  Eurymedon  immediately  set  sail  with 
money  and  troops  to  Syracuse. 

Meanwhile  there  had  been  in  the  Great  Harbor  two 
naval  engagements,  in  the  first  of  which  the  Athenians 
were  victorious,  but  in  the  second  they  were  thoroughly 
defeated  and  disheartened. 


REINFOR  CEMENTS, 


87 


At  this  crisis  the  reinforcements  from  Athens  ap- 
peared, consisting  of  seventy-three  new  triremes,  5,000 
heavy-armed  warriors,  and  a  large  body  of  light-armed 
trooi)s.  The  effect  was  marked.  The  Syracusans  were 
terrified.  The  Athenians  once  more  outnumbered  the 
enemy  on  both  land  and  sea.  Demosthenes,  a  general 
of  an  entirely  different  stamp  from  Nicias,  soon  ac- 
quainted himself  with  the  situation  of  affairs.  He  saw 
at  once  that,  unless  Epipolae  was  retaken,  Syracuse  was 
safe.  Accordingly  he  made  an  attack  by  night  upon 
the  heights,  but  without  success. 

Demosthenes  now  thought  the  best  policy  was  to 
return  home  and  assist  the  Athenians  in  driving  the 
Spartans  from  Attica.  Nicias,  however,  insisted  upon 
the  army's  remaining.  He  feared  to  return  and  be 
covered  with  disgrace.  But  when  fresh  troops  arrived 
to  assist  Gylii)pus  (towards  the  end  of  August),  even 
Nicias  was  obliged  to  yield,  and  secret  preparations 
were  made  to  leave  Syracuse.  The  night  of  the  27th 
was  agreed  upon  for  a  start.  Every  thing  was  ready, 
when  an  eclii)se  of  the  moon  took  place.  The  sooth- 
sayers declared  that  tliis  was  an  ill  omen,  and  that  the 
dei)Jirture  nmst  be  deferred  for  27  days.  Three  days 
after  this  (Aug.  30)  Gylippus  gave  orders  for  an  attack 
by  land  and  sea.  Tiie  Athenians  were  defeated,  and 
one  of  their  generals,  Eurymedon,  was  killed.  The 
remnant  of  their  fleet  was  driven  into  the  innennost 
corner  of  the  Great  Harbor,  the  entrance  of  which  was 
closed  and  blockaded  with  ships  connected  by  chains. 
A  life-and-death  struggle  now  ensued.  If  the  Athe- 
nians were  ever  to  see  their  homes  again,  they  must 
break  this  blockade.  The  crews  advanced,  animated 
by  the  courage  of  despair.     Nearly   200   ships  were 


\ 


\ 


88      FINAL  FAILURE  OF  THE  ATHENIANS, 

engaged  in  close  conflict,  while  the  shores  around  were 
lined  with  Syracusan  troops,  and  destruction  threatened 
the  Athenians  on  every  side.  They  fought  with  des- 
peration, but  to  no  purpose.  Their  fleet  was  driven 
back  to  the  shore,  and  they  were  obliged  to  take  refuge 
in  the  fortifications.  In  this  hopeless  situation,  the 
Athenians  deteiTnined  to  desert  their  fleet,  leave  their 
wounded  to  the  mercy  of  the  enemy,  and  march  into 
the  interior.  On  the  3d  of  September  the  army 
began  their  march,  —  an  army  of  40,000  men,  without 
any  definite  goal  for  their  journey,  without  sufticient 
supplies  of  food,  without  confidence  in  themselv*es,  and 
utterly  disheartened.  The  van  was  led  by  Nicias,  the 
rear  by  Demosthenes.  For  six  days  they  pursued  their 
weary  course,  harassed  on  all  sides  by  the  enemy,  with 
continual  losses  and  desertions,  until  finally  those  that 
were  left  (only  10,000)  surrendered.  Nicias  and  De- 
mosthenes were  condemned  to  death.  The  great  mass 
of  prisoners  was  placed  in  stone  quarries,  where  they 
were  exposed  to  the  glowing  heat  of  the  sun,  with 
scarcely  provisions  enough  to  sustain  life.  The  bodies 
of  those  who  died  from  such  exposure  were  left  to 
decay  where  they  had  fallen,  causing  finally  such  a 
stench  that  the  Syracusans  were  obliged  to  sell  tlie 
survivors  into  slavery. 

Thus  the  Sicilian  expedition  ended  in  a  series  of 
events,  which  to  this  day  excite  feelings  of  horror.  Tlio 
primary  cause  of  the  failure  of  this  expedition  consisted 
in  the  fact  that  the  Athenian  people  had  deserted  the 
principles  of  Pericles.  It  was  his  i)olicy,  after  having 
secured  to  Athens  such  an  enviable  position,  to  act 
simply  on  the  defensive,  and  not  to  run  any  risk  by 
pursuing  a  dangerous  offensive  course;  therefore  the 


SECONDARY  CAUSE   OF  FAILURE,         89 

first  mistake  of  the  Athenians  was  in  sending  any  ex- 
pedition at  all  to  Sicily.  Again,  Nicias,  through  his 
want  of  energy  and  incompetency  as  a  general,  was  a 
secondary  cause  of  the  failure  of  this  expedition.  Had 
be  been  the  proper  man  for  the  position,  the  result  of 
the  enterprise  would  have  been  far  different. 


/ 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

The  Peloponxesiax  War.    Tiiikd  Pekiod, 

413-404  B.C. 

When  the  news  of  the  disasters  in  Sicily  reached 
Athens,  it  could  hardly  be  believed.  The  citizens  were 
in  a  state  of  despair  and  terror,  and  believed  that  the 
last  days  of  their  city  had  come.  They  had  lost  200 
ships  of  war,  and  C0,000  men ;  their  docks  and  naval 
arsenals  were  empty,  and  also  their  treasury;  their 
command  at  sea  was  gone,  and  their  whole  povvxr, 
based  on  the  fear  inspired  in  their  subject-allies  by  their 
powerful  fleets,  was  shattered.  On  the  other  hand, 
Sparta  stood  at  the  head  of  her  confederates,  animated 
by  new  hopes,  and  eager  to  make  herself  mistress  of 
the  resources  of  Athens. 

Previous  to  the  destruction  of  the  Sicilian  armament 
(in  the  spring  of  413  n.c),  the  Spartans,  acting  on  the 
advice  of  Alcibiades,  had  established  themselves  at 
Deceleia,  a  place  situated  on  the  ridge  of  Mount  Panics, 
14  miles  north  of  Athens,  and  commanding  the  Athe- 
nian plain.  This  post  they  held  throughout  the  war, 
and  so  important  was  it  that  the  third  i)eriod  of  the 
war  was  called  the  Deceleian  war. 

In  412  ii.r.,  Chios,  Lesbos,  Ilhodos,  and  several  cities 
on  the  coast  of  Asia  ISIinor  revolted  from  Athens.  Here 
again  the  hatred  of  Alcibiades  is  felt ;  for  it  was  he 
tliat  advised  the  Spartans  to  assist  the  rebellious  sub- 


ALLIANCE  OF  PERSIA  AND  SPARTA.      91 

jects  of  his  native  city.  The  Athenians,  however,  did 
not  despair:  they  determined  to  make  a  brave  struggle 
before  submitting.  Pericles  had  reserved  a  fund  of 
11,000,000,  to  be  used  only  in  a  crisis  like  this.  The 
Athenians  determined  to  nuike  use  of  this  reserve  for 
putting  down,  if  possible,  the  revolt  of  the  islands  and 
Ionian  cities.  The  Spartans  saw  it  was  important  to 
encourage  this  revolt,  and  crossed  the  ^gean  sea  with 
forces  to  co-operate  with  the  rebels  against  Athens. 
Persia,  desirous  of  recovering  the  Ionian  cities  formerly 
under  her  control,  entered  into  an  alliance  (412  b.c.) 
with  Sparta.  The  Persians  promised  to  pay  the  ex- 
penses of  the  war,  provided  the  cities  of  Asia  Minor, 
the  islands  of  the  iEgean,  and  even  Thessalia  and 
BcDotia  were  considered  a  part  of  their  dominion. 

Such  a  treaty  as  this  was  humiliatinor  and  disgrace- 
ful.  Sparta  in  her  blind  hatred  of  Athens  was  willing 
to  stoop  to  any  shameful  act,  if  only  her  rival  was  in- 
jured thereby. 

In  the  autumn  of  412  b.c.  the  Athenian  fleet  arrived 
off*  Miletus.  A  battle  was  fought  with  the  Pelopon- 
nesians  and  Persians,  in  which  the  Athenians  ^rained 
the  advantage.  The  results  of  this  battle,  however, 
were  unimportant.  The  Athenians  withdrew  to  Samos 
(which  had  constantly  remained  faithful  to  them),  and 
spent  the  winter  (412-411  b.c). 

The  most  important  event  of  this  winter  was  the 
change  which  occurred  in  the  plans  of  Alcibiades.  He 
had  performed  the  most  valuable  services  for  Sparta, 
and  had  been  the  chief  cause  of  all  her  successes.  He 
saw  now  that  his  own  plans  could  be  better  carried  out 
by  Persian  aid.  He  accordingly  quitted  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  camp  in  secret,  and  repaired  to  the  head-quarters 


7 


92 


PLANS  OF  ALCIBIADES, 


of  Tissaphernes,  the  Persian  governor,  by  whom  he  was 
gladly  welcomed.  Soon  he  became  the  confidential  ad- 
viser and  minister  of  Tissaphernes,  and  directed  the 
foreign  policy  of  the  state  here  as  he  had  at  Sparta. 
His  advice  to  Persia  was,  not  to  become  the  ally  of  any 
one  of  the  Greek  states ;  for  it  was  her  interest  to  keep 
both  Atliens  and  Sparta  weak.  Tissaphernes  was  de- 
lighted with  these  counsels.  He  honored  Alcibiades  at 
his  court  in  every  possible  manner,  and  even  named 
his  new  pleasure-grounds  at  Sardis  after  him.  But,  in 
point  of  fact,  Alcibiades  was  working  only  for  his  own 
ends,  as  we  shall  soon  see. 

The  long  continuance  of  the  war  caused  at  Athens 
a  general  feeling  of  weariness.  No  genuine  ardor  for 
continuing  the  struggle  prevailed  in  any  quarter.  Un- 
der these  circumstances  the  oligarchical  party  felt  tliat, 
by  changing  the  form  of  government  to  one  more 
resembling  that  of  Sparta,  a  termination  of  the  war 
might  at  length  be  brought  about. 

Alcibiades  gave  impulse  to  this  feeling.  He  entered 
into  communication  with  the  most  influential  oligarchs 
in  the  Athenian  camp  at  Samos,  promising  them  pecu- 
niary aid  from  Tissaphernes,  and  all  the  support  that  he 
himself  oould  give,  if  they  succeeded  in  overthrowing 
the  present  constitution  of  Athens. 

Peisander  was  commissioned  by  the  party  at  Samos 
to  go  to  Athens  and  gain  as  large  a  party  as  he  could 
to  favor  a  new  constitution.  He  held  secret  conferences 
with  the  leading  citizens,  by  whose  influence  a  decree 
was  passed  (January,  411  b.c.),  empowering  him  with 
ten  others  to  negotiate  openly  with  Tissaphernes  and 
Alcibiades.    But   Alcibiades  made  such   extravasrant 


THE  FOUR  HUNDRED, 


98 


demands  that  they  could  not  be  listened  to,  and  the 
negotiations  were  broken  off. 

Meanwhile  at  Athens  the  friends  of  Peisander  were 
working  with  better  success.     Theramenes  and  Auti- 
phon    were   his   strongest    supporters,    both    eloquent 
speakers  and  influential  men.     Thus  when  Peisander 
returned   to  Athens  he   found  every  thing  ready  for 
action,  and  in  March  (411  b.c.)  he  carried  "through,  in 
the  assembly,  a  series  of  resolutions  to  this  effect  T  viz., 
a  new  council  of  Pour  Hundred  should  govern   the 
state  to  the  best  of  its  ability.   This  council  sent  envoys 
without  delay  to  Deceleia  to  inform  the  Spartan  king 
of  the  changes  that  had  taken  place  at  Athens,  and  to 
enter  into  negotiations  with  him  for  the  bringing  about 
of  peace. 

In  Samos  this  revolution  at  Athens  was  looked  upon 
with  ill  grace.     All  the  lovers  of  liberty,  headed  by 
Thrasybulus,    united   their    efforts    against   the   Four 
Hundred.     The  whole  array   took   a  solemn   oath  to 
hold  fast   to    the   old    constitution,    to    courageously 
carry  on  the  war  against  Sparta,  and  to  regard  the 
Four  Hundred  as  enemies  of  the  state.     Thrasybulus 
was  the  firet  man  in  the  camp,  a  person  full  of  vii^or 
and  moral  stamina.     He  burned  to  deliver  his  native 
city  from  the  bonds  of  the  present  government,  and 
restonj  the  former  state  of  liberty.     He  saw  that  Alci- 
biades would,  be  his  best  ally  in  furthering  his  plans, 
and  accordingly  summoned  him  from  Asia  (April,  411 

B.C.). 

Thus,  after  an  absence  of  four  years,  Alcibiades  stood 
once  more  among  his  fellow-citizens.  He  soon  gained 
the  hearts  of  the  soldiers,  and  raised  their  courage  by 
promising  aid  from  Persia. 


94 


BATTLE  OF  CYNOSSEMA. 


Meanwhile  at  Athens  the  Pour  Hundred  were  not 
governing  in  perfect  harmony.  Division  of  opinions 
arose,  some  wanted  one  thing,  some  another.  The 
Athenians  at  last  became  so  disgusted  with  the  govern- 
ment tliat  in  the  middle  of  June  they  assembled  in  the 
Pnyx  and  deposed  the  Council  of  the  Four  Hundred 
four  months  after  its  formation.  Most  of  the  council 
fled ;  but  two  of  the  leaders  were  tried  and  condemned 
to  death. 

In  July  of  this  summer  the  Athenians  gained  a  great 
.victory  over  the  Spartans  at  Abydoa  on  the  Hellespont. 
A  few  weeks  later,  in  October,  the  Spartans  again 
offered  battle.  It  continued  all  day  long,  without  any 
decisive  result,  when  Alcibiades  arrived  with  reinforce- 
ments. The  Athenians  were  filled  with  fresh  courage 
at  seeing  his  standard  unfurled.  The  Si)artan8  werp 
driven  to  the  shore  and  utterly  routed.  This  battle  ia 
generally  called  that  of  Cynossema,  after  a  promontory 
which  was  near  the  field  of  action. 

In  the  following  February  (410  B.C.),  the  most  bril- 
liant  victory  of  this  period  of  the  war  was  gained  by 
the  Athenians  under  Alcibiades  at  Cyzicus.  The  Spar- 
tan general,  Mindarus,  was  slain,  and  the  entire  Pelo- 
ponnesian  fleet  captured. 

These  repeated  successes  filled  the  Athenians  with 
boundless  joy.  They  welcomed  (June,  408  B.C.)  Alci- 
biades back  to  his  native  city.  His  proj)erty  was  all 
restored,  and  he  himself  made  general  with  unlimited 
powers.  Athens  now  seemed  in  a  fair  way  to  regain 
her  former  power  and  influence.  But  the  arrival  of 
two  new  officers  upon  the  field  of  war  in  Asia  Minor 
turned  the  scale  against  her.  One  was  Cyrus,  a  son 
of  the   Pei*sian    king;   the   other    was  Lysander,   the 


BATTLE  OF  ARGINUSM, 


95 


new  Spartan  commander.  Thus,  when  Alcibiades  arrived 
from  Athens,  he  found  the  situation  less  favorable  than 
he  had  hoped.  While  absent  from  his  fleet  for  the 
purpose  of  raising  funds  among  friendly  states,  his  cap- 
tain, Antiochus,  was  surprised  and  defeated  offNotium, 
in  the  Gulf  of  Ephesus  (407  b.c). 

The  Athenians,  acting  in  an  unaccountable  and  fool- 
ish haste,  immediately  deprived  Alcibiades  of  his  com- 
mand, because  of  this  defeat,  although  he  himself  was 
not  at  all  accountable  for  it.  Thus  they  lost  their  most 
able  general.  Alcibiades  now  retired  to  his  j)rivate 
domain  in  the  Chersonesus,  and  a  few  years  alter  (404 
B.C.)  was  murdered  by  a  band  of  assassins  hired  by  the 
Spartans. 

Conon  succeeded  Alcibiades  in  the  command  of  the 
fleet.  At  the  same  time  Lysander,  whose  term  of 
office  had  exj)ire(l,  was  succeeded  by  Callicratidas. 
These  two  met  in  the  harbor  of  Mytilene  (40G  b.c). 
In  this  engagement  the  Athenians  lost  lialf  their  sliips, 
Hud  were  themselves  blockaded  by  Callicratidas.  As 
soon  as  the  defeat  of  Conon  was  known  at  Athens,  a 
large  fleet  was  sent  to  his  assistance.  Callicratidas, 
hearing  of  the  approach  of  this  fleet,  left  enough  ships 
to  continue  the  blockade  of  Mytilene,  and  sailed  out 
with  the  remainder  to  meet  the  enemy. 

Battle  of  Arginus^  (Sept.,  40G  b.c). 

The  Spartan  commander  took  up  a  position  off  the 
southern  promontory  of  Lesbos.  He  was  animated  by 
an  undoubting  confidence  of  victory ;  while  the  Athe- 
nians timidly  held  back,  fearing  the  first  encounter. 
Their  fleet  was  drawn  up  opj>osite  tlie  Lesbian  promon- 
tory,  near  three  rocky  islands  called  the  Arginusse 


96 


BATTLE  OF  jEGOS-POTAMI. 


Callicratidas  made  the  first  attack.  The  struggle  that 
followed  was  a  terrible  one,  but  the  Athenians  finally 
came  out  victorious.  Callicratidas  himself  was  drowned. 
The  battle  of  Arginusae  was  the  greatest  naval  battle 
of  the  whole  war.  Two  hundred  and  seventy-five 
ships  were  engaged  in  it.  The  Spartans  were  dis- 
couraged. They  sent  envoys  to  Athens  to  renew  oflTers 
for  peace.  The  Athenians,  emboldened  by  success,  re- 
jected all  their  proposals :  thus  this  victory,  which  might 
have  been  used  to  such  advantage,  was  allowed  to  be 
void  of  results. 

A  violent  storm  arose  immediately  after  the  battle  of 
Arginusse,  and  the  disabled  Athenian  vessels  could  not 
be  rescued.  Consequently  all  those  who  were  alive  on 
these  vessels,  as  well  as  the  dead,  were  left  to  the  mercy 
of  the  elements.  The  commanders  were  summoned 
home  to  answer  for  this  conduct.  They  were  con- 
demned and  executed.  The  Athenians  repented,  when 
too  late,  of  this  cruel  and  uncalled-for  punishment. 

^GOS-PoTAMi  (August,  405  B.C.). 

Again  Lysander  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Spartan 
forces.  He  equipped  a  large  fleet,  and  sailed  to  the  Hel- 
lespont in  405  B.C.  The  Athenian  fleet  was  stationed 
opposite  Lampsacus  in  an  open  bay,  into  which  flowed 
the  "goat-river"  (^gos-Potami).  Here  Lysander 
attacked  it  when  off  its  guard,  and  gained  a  complete 
victory.  The  whole  fleet,  except  the  ship  of  Conon 
and  eight  others,  was  captured,  together  with  3,000 

prisoners. 

The  news  of  this  great  calamity  spread  horror  and 
dismay  at  Athens.  The  city  had  no  means  of  defence ; 
and  two  months  later,  when  the  Spartan  Admiral  ap- 


DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  LONG  WALLS,       97 


peared  in  the  harbor  and  demanded  immediate  surrender, 
she  was  obliged  to  capitulate.  The  long  walls  and  forti- 
fications of  the  Peirajeus  were  destroyed,  all  the  ships 
of  war  given  up,  all  exiles  restored,  and  all  foreign  pos- 
sessions relinquished. 

Thus  ended  the  Athenian  supremacy,  which  had 
lasted  for  seventy-three  years.  The  great  days  of 
Athens  under  Pericles  were  gone ;  but  they  could  never 
be  forgotten,  and  remained  as  a  treasure  to  the  nation 
for  all  time.  After-generations  have  found  a  source  cf 
encouragement  in  the  contemplation  of  this  age,  which, 
in  its  iutcllectual  activity,  has  never  been  surpassed. 


CHxlPTER  XIX. 


The  Thirty  Tyrants.     Socrates. 

The  triumph  of  Sparta  was  the  triumph  of  oligar- 
chical principles  throughout  Greece.  At  Athens  the 
democracy  was  abolished,  and  the  entire  control  of  the 
government  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  Board  of  Thirty, 
called  the  Thirty  Tyrants.  Boards  of  ten  were  set 
up  by  Lysander,  as  the  supreme  authority,  in  Samoa 
and  other  places,  while  Spartan  goveraoi-s,  with  in- 
definite powers,  were  established. everywhere.  The 
Greeks  found  that,  instead  of  gaining  by  the  change  of 
masters,  they  had  lost;  that  they  had  exchanged  the 
yoke  of  Athens,  which  if  grasping  was  at  least  refined, 
civilized,  and  polished,  for  that  of  Sparta,  which  was 
not  only  grasping,  but  coarse,  harsh,  and  cruel. 

Critias  was  at  the  head  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  at 
Athens.  He  was  distinguished  above  all  the  others  fur 
his  cruelty  and  rapacity.  Hundreds  of  citizens  were 
seized,  pronounced  guilty  by  the  Thirty,  and  con- 
demned to  perish.  The  property  of  the  victims  was 
confiscated,  and  murder  and  robbery  seemed  the  order 

of  the  day. 

Such  numerous  deeds  of  violence  filled  the  city  with 
terror  and  indignation.  It  became  more  and  more 
evident  every  day  that  no  man  was  safe  in  Athens ;  so 
that  Athenian  emigrants  kept  flocking  into  the  neighbor- 
ing states.  These  suff*ering  exiles  aroused  deep  sympathy 


DEATH  OF  SOCRATES. 


99 


by  the  recital  of  the  endless  enormities  perpetrated  by 
Critias  and  his  colleagues.  Thrasybulus,  one  of  the  exiles 
who  had  fled  to  Thebes,  marched  with  a  small  band  of 
followers  into  Attica  and  seized  Phyle,  a  fortress  north 
of  Athens  on  the  direct  road  to  Thebes.  The  Thirty 
marched  out  with  a  strong  force  to  attack  him,  but  were 
driven  back.  Five  days  later,  Thrasybulus  formed 
the  bold  plan  of  surprising  by  night  the  Peirajeus. 
Here  he  was  joined  by  many  sympathizing  countrymen. 
The  next  morning  Critias  with  a  body  of  men  en- 
deavored to  dislodge  liim,  but  to  no  purpose.  In 
the  engagement  that  ensued  he  himself,  with  many 
followers,  was  killed. 

The  Thirty,  now  that  they  had  lost  their  leader,  the 
most  cruel  and  unprincipled  of  them  all,  were  easily 
deposed  (403  B.C.),  after  a  government  of  only  eight 
months. 

Shortly  after  this,  the  exiles  were  recalled,  all  the  acts 
of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  annulled,  and  the  old  laws  of 
Draco  and  Solon  revised  and  put  in  force. 

A  dark  blot  on  the  history  of  Athens  at  this  tnne  is 
the  condemnation  of  Socrates  (399  B.C.).  This  illus- 
trious philosoi>her,  whose  teachings  were  full  of  the 
liighest  morality,  who  had  always  been  a  true  patriot 
and  fought  faithfully  on  many  a  battle-field,  who  had 
ever  favored  justice  and  mercy,  the  powers  of  whose 
great  intellect  were  directed  against  atheists  and 
sceptics  of  all  kinds,  was  accused,  forsooth,  of  corrupt- 
ing the  Athenian  youth,  and  introducing  the  worship  of 
8tran<re  deities.  His  admirable  defence  when  on  trial 
served  only  to  exasperate  his  blind  judges,  and  he  was 
condemned  to  death. 


CORONEIA  AND  CNIDOS, 


101 


CHAPTER  XX. 

Expedition   of   the  Tex  Thousand.    Battle    op 
CuNAXA.    Autumn,  401  u.c. 

Darius  II.  (Nothus),  king  of  Persia  and  grandson 
of  Xerxes  I.,  died  405  B.C.  Darius  had  two  sons,  Arta- 
xerxes  and  Cyrus  (called  Cyrus,  the  Younger).  ArtJi- 
xei-xes  succeeded  to  the  throne;  but  Cyrus,  who  had 
always  been  a  rival  of  his  brother,  determined  to  obtain 
by  force  the  coveted  sceptre.  Accordingly  he  hired 
10,000  Greek  troops,  who,  at  the  close  of  the  Pelo[)on- 
nesian  war,  were  left  in  Asia  Minor  with  notldng  to  do, 
to  assist  him  in  his  bold  undertakinj;. 

They  marched  from  Sardis  in  the  spring  of  401  n.c, 
pursued  their  course  through  Asia  ]\Iinor,  Syria,  and, 
having  crossed  the  Euphrates,  ibllowed  its  couree  until 
they  met  the  forces  of  Artaxerxes  on  the  j)lain  of 
Cuuaza,  near  Babylon.  In  the  battle  which  followed 
the  Gieek  troops  were  victorious,  but  Cyrus  himself 
was  killed.  Xeuophon  then  took  command  of  the 
Greek  army,  and  a  retreat  was  made,  under  great 
difficulties  and  dangei*s,  through  \\n  enemy's  country, 
to  the  Euxine  (Black)  sea.  This  celebrated  Retreat 
of  the  Ten  Thousand  has  been  described  in  full  by 
Xenophou  himself,  in  one  of  his  writings  called  the 
Anabasis. 


U 


The   War   op  the    Spartans  with   Persia, 

399-394  B.C. 

The   Corinthian  War,   394    B.C.,  terminated   by 
the  "Peace  of  Antalcidas." 

The  immediate  result  of  the  expedition  of  the  "  Ten 
Thousand  "  was  war  between  Persia  and  Sparta.  The 
greater  part  of  the  "  Ten  Thousand "  was  composed 
of  Spartan  troops,  and  Artaxerxes  was  determined  to 
punish  them  for  their  boldness  in  marching  against 
him.  The  war  lasted  for  six  years,  and  was  carried  on 
in  Asia  Minor. 

Agesilaus,  the  Spartan  commander,  was  decidedly 
getting  the  better  of  Artaxerxes,  when  he  was  called 
home  to  crush  an  alliance  formed  against  Sparta  by 
Argos,  Thebes,  Corinth,  and  Athens,  who  were  becom- 
ing jealous  of  her  power. 

The  war  which  followed  is  called  the  Corinthian 
war,  a  war  now  in  favor  of  Sparta,  now  of  the  allies. 
The  m*cat  land  fii^ht  was  at  Coroneia,  in  Boeotia,  394 
B.C.  Here  Agesilaus  gained  a  victory,  though  not  a  very 
decisive  one,  over  the  Thebans.  ]Uit  in  a  severe  naval 
battle  oif  Cnidos,  in  Caria  (August,  394  B.C.),  Conon, 
the  Athenian  Admiral,  assisted  by  the  Persians,  com- 
pletely defeated  the  Spartans.  More  than  half  their 
fleet  was  either  captured  or  destroyed. 

In  the  following  spring  (393  B.C.)  Conon  returned  to 
Athens,  and  rebuilt  the  Long  Walls  and  fortifications  of 
the  Peiraeeus.  The  Athenians  honored  him  as  a  second 
founder  of  their  city  an<i  restorer  of  her  greatness. 

Sparta  soon  found  that  the  strain  upon  her  resources 
to  carry  on  this  war  successfully  was  so  great  that  she 


102 


PEACE  OF  ANTALCIDAS, 


was  eager  to  procure  peace  at  any  cost.  Antalcidas 
was  sent  to  the  Persian  court  to  conclude  a  peace. 
This  peace,  called  the  Peace  of  Antalcidas  (387  B.C.), 
was  most  disgi-aceful  to  the  Greeks,  who  relinquished 
to  Persia  all  the  Greek  cities  in  Asia  Minor  and  many 
of  the  islands  of  the  -^gcan.  (Lemnoa,  Imbros,  and 
Scyros  were  still  to  belong  to  Athens.) 

Sparta  was  now  at  the  zenith  of  her  power,  extending 
lier  influence  in  all  directions,  and  nowhere  meeting 
with  resistance.  But  success,  as  is  often  the  case, 
resulted  in  arrogance.  Even  in  time  of  peace  she 
occupied  the  citadel  of  Thebes,  —  the  Cadmeia,  —  and 
for  three  years  the  city  was  a  mere  dependent  upon 
Sparta.  But  the  Thebans  were  discontented,  and  de- 
termined as  soon  as  possible  to  throw  oif  the  hated 
yoke.  Their  deliverance  was  near  at  hand.  Two 
young  Thebans,  Epameinoudas  and  Pelopidaa,  were 
destined  to  be  the  saviors  of  their  city. 


n 


CHAPTER  XXL 

Freedom  of  Thebes  from  Spartan  Sway,  379  B.a 
League  between  Athens  and  Thebes. 

Epameinondas  and  Pelopidas. 

The   Peace   of   Callias,  371   b.c. 

Epameinondas  and  Pelopidas  were  two  Thebans 
noted  for  their  faithful  friendship  to  one  another. 
They  were  both  distinguished  for  integrity  and  up- 
rightness, and  both  were  successful  generals. 

Pelopidas  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  exiles  resolved  to 
make  an  attack  upon  the  Spartan  garrison  at  Thebes, 
and  wrest  the  city  from  their  oppressive  rule.  The  Spar- 
tan leaders  were  killed  at  a  banquet,  and  the  garrison 
expelled  from  the  citadel  (379  b.c).  Athens  and 
Thebes  now  joined  in  alliance,  and  declared  war 
against  Sparta.  A  confederacy,  similar  to  the  Con- 
federacy of  Delos,  was  formed,  with  Athens  at  the 
head,  but  with  all  the  members  peifectly  independent. 

In  Thebes  the  soldiers  were  put  under  the  best  train- 
ing, and  the  memorable  Sacred  Band  was  for  the  first 
time  organized.  This  was  a  brigade  of  300  heavy- 
armed  men.  It  consisted  of  young  men  from  the 
best  families,  distinguished  for  their  strength  and  cour- 
age, and  was  drawn  up  in  such  a  manner  that  each 
pair  of  soldiers  were  intimate  friends.  Thus  the  whole 
ban  1  was  kept  together  by  ties  which  no  dangers  could 


104 


PEACE   OF  C ALU  AS. 


sever.  Eparaeinondas  took  the  most  prominent  part  in 
drilling  and  disciplining  these  bands. 

In  the  summer  of  378  B.C.,  a  large  force  of  Spartans 
marched  into  Bceotia,  but  without  effecting  any  thing 
decisive.  All  subsequent  invasions  of  the  Spartans 
were  similar  in  their  results;  until,  in  374  B.C.,  the 
Thebans  succeeded  in  driving  out  the  Sj)artans,  and 
for  two  years  were  free  from  an  invasion.  During  this 
period  most  of  the  Boeotian  cities  submitted  to  Thebes, 
all  Spartan  garrisons  were  expelled,  and  free  govern- 
ments restored. 

In  September,  376  b.c.,  the  Athenians  gained  their 
first  great  victory  since  the  Peloponnesian  war  at 
Naxos.  The  Spartan  fleet  had  been  cruising  in  the 
.^gean,  and  threatening  to  destroy  the  commerce  of  the 
Athenians.  Feeling  severely  this  interruption  to  their 
trade,  Athens  fitted  out  a  fleet  and  despatched  it  to 
check  the  Spartans  in  their  coui*se.  The  two  fleets 
met,  and  in  a  shai-ply  contested  action  near  Naxos  the 
Spartans  received  a  severe  defeat.  Athens  regained 
her  mastery  over  the  sea. 

Thus  all  the  efforts  of  Sparta  against  her  two  ene- 
mies (Thebes  and  Athens)  were  of  no  avail. 

But  the  successes  of  Thebos  raised  feelings  of  jealousy 
in  the  breasts  of  the  Athenians,  who  began  to  negotiate 
with  Sparta.  A  j)eace  was  then  (371  b.c.)  concluded, 
called  the  Peace  of  Callias,  in  which  the  independence 
of  all  Greek  cities  was  recognized.  Thebes,  wishing 
to  be  the  head  of  the  cities  in  Jiceotia,  declined  peace 
on  such  terms,  and  was  excluded  from  the  treaty. 


CHAPTER  XXIL 


The  Theban  Supremacy,  371-301  B.a 

Leuctra,  371  B.C. 

Mantineia,  362  b.c. 

Sparta  now  having  only  Thebes  to  contend  with,  and 
imagining  that  she  could  easily  triumph,  sent  troops 
into  Bceotia  to  crush  her  hated  rival.  But  Epameinon- 
das  and  Pelopidas  were  not  to  be  so  easily  overcome. 
The  Theban  army,  though  outnumbered,  arrayed  their 
forces  so  skilfully  that  the  Spartans  could  nowhere 
break  their  solid  lines.  The  tactics  adopted  by  Epam- 
einondas  were  the  same  as  those  used  by  Napoleon  in 
modern  times;  viz.,  to  concentrate  at  a  given  point  of 
the  enemy's  line  large  numbers  of  troops.  The  Sacred 
Band  led  the  attack ;  and,  although  the  Spartans  evinced 
their  usual  valor,  the  Thebans  carried  every  thing  before 
them.  The  Spartans  left  4,000  on  the  field,  while  only 
300  Thebans  were  slain. 

This  magnificent  victory  of  Epameinondas  at  Leuctra 
<lashed  the  hopes  of  Sparta  to  the  ground.  She  I'ell, 
suddenly  and  for  ever,  from  her  previous  high  position. 
Almost  all  central  Greece  joined  Thebes.  Ejiameinon. 
das,  invited  by  Arcadia,  marched  into  the  Peloponnesus 
and  ravaged  the  Spartan  territory,  a])i»roaching  to  the 
very    suburbs   of  the  city,   an  almost    unj)recedented 


106 


BATTLE  OF  MANTINEIA. 


event ;  for  it  had  been  the  boast  of  Sparta  that  "  their 
women  had  never  seen  the  smoke  of  an  enemy's  camp." 

Epameinondas  also  founded  a  new  city  in  Arcadia, 
which  he  called  Megalopolis.  He  established  the  inde- 
pendence of  Messenia,  and  founded  the  city  of  Messene. 

Meanwhile  Thebes  was  extending  her  influence  also 
in  northern  Greece.  Her  armies  were  sent  into  Thes- 
salia,  and  after  some  resistance  the  country  was  sub- 
jugated. In  a  battle  fought  here  on  the  hills  of 
Cynoscephalae  (364  B.C.)  PeIo|)idas  was  slain. 

In  362  B.C.  Epameinondas  again  entered  the  Pelopon- 
nesus. At  Tegea  he  was  joined  by  his  allies.  From 
here  he  advanced  towards  Mantineia,  where  the  Spartan 
troops  were  stationed.  Here  a  great  battle  was  fought, 
in  which  Epameinondas  repeated  the  tactics  so  success- 
ful at  Leuctra,  and  comi)letely  defeated  the  Spartans 
and  their  allies.  But  he  himself  was  killed,  and  in  his 
death  Sparta  was  almost  compensated  for  her  defeat; 
for  Thebes,  unable  to  find  another  capable  leader,  sunk 
bnck  at  once  into  insignificance.  Thus  ended  the 
Theban  supremacy,  which  lasted  for  ten  years,  371- 

361  BX3. 


CHAPTER  XXin. 

SociAi.  War,  358-355  b.c. 

Sacred  War,   357-346  B.a 

Philip  of  Macedonia. 

The  peace  which  followed  Mantineia  was  not  dis- 
turbed for  six  years.  During  this  time  Athens  recovered 
in  a  great  measure  her  former  prosperity.  She  had 
again  become  mistress  of  the  Chersonesus,  of  Euboea, 
and  her  territory  in  the  region  of  Amphipolis.  But  a 
revolt  of  many  of  her  more  distant  allies,  as  Rhodos, 
Cos,  Chios,  and  Byzantium,  engaged  her  in  the  Social 
war.  This  war  cost  her  many  men,  drew  largely  on 
her  treasury,  and  finally  resulted  in  a  peace  disadvan- 
tageous to  herself,  while  it  secured  the  independence  of 
ber  allies. 

The  Social  war  was  also  highly  injurious  to  Athens 
in  another  respect.  She  was  so  engaged  in  the  struggle 
with  her  allies  that  she  allowed  Philip,  king  of  Mace- 
donia, now  first  rising  into  importance,  to  deprive  her 
of  all  her  dominions  upon  the  Thermaic  Gulf,  the  most 
important  of  which  were  Amphipolis  and  Potidaea. 

Before  the  Social  war  had  come  to  an  end,  another 
struggle,  fatal  to  Greece,  was  begun,  called  the  Sacred 
war.  The  cause  of  this  war  was  the  hatred  of  Thebes 
for  Phocis,  a  state  that  had  been  a  friend  of  Sparta. 
Phocis  seized  upon  the  treasures  at  Delphi,  and  with 


108 


PHILIP  OF  MACEDONIA. 


the  assistance  derived  from  them  prolonged  the  war  for 
eleven  years.  At  last  Thebes  called  in  (346  b.c.)  the 
aid  of  Philip,  king  of  Macedonia. 

Philip  (359-336  b.c.)  was  a  monarch  of  great  ability 
and  activity.  Previous  to  his  accession,  Macedonia  had 
been  a  second  or  third  rate  power  of  no  importance. 

At  the  age  of  fifteen,  Philip  was  sent  to  Thebes  as  a 
hostage,  where  he  lived  three  years,  while  that  city  was 
at  the  height  of  its  prosperity  under  Pelopidas  and 
Epameinondas.  He  was  thus  brought  in  contact  with 
these  great  men,  and  led  to  study  their  system  and 
imitate  their  actions.  He  learned  the  importance  of 
careful  military  training ;  and  it  was  in  a  great  measure 
owing  to  the  fine  discipline  of  his  troops  that  he  was 
always  invincible.  He  was  also  a  master  of  diplomacy 
and  an  artful  deceiver,  advancing  his  purposes  fully  as 
much  by  promising  and  bribing  as  by  force  of  arms. 

Such  was  the  i)erson  whom  Thebes  invited  to  aid  her 
in  conquering  the  Phocians;  one  who  would  only  be 
content  when  he  saw  the  whole  of  Greece  at  his  feet. 

It  required  but  a  short  time  for  Philip  to  reduce  the 
towns  of  Phocis  and  disperse  their  inhabitants. 

Within  six  years  of  the  submission  of  Phocis,  Philip 
declared  war  against  Athens,  the  only  city  in  Greece 
capable  of  offering  any  resistance.  At  this  time  the 
Athenians  were  in  a  state  of  apathy,  in  marked  con- 
trast to  their  ancient  activity  and  patriotism.  De- 
mosthenes, the  greatest  orator  of  ancient  times,  was 
the  only  person  who  seemed  to  realize  the  importance 
of  making  a  firm  stand  against  Philip,  and  opj)osing 
to  the  last  his  ambitious  plans.  His  orations  a^^ainst 
Philip  and  his  policy  (called  the  Philippics)  are  master- 
pieces of  eloquence.     jaSschines  was  the  opponent  of 


BATTLE  OF  CILERONEIA, 


109 


Demosthenes;  an  orator  of  nearly  equal  ability  as  his 
rival,  but  won  over  to  the  side  of  Philip  by  flattery 
and  bribes. 

In  338  B.C.  Philip  again  appeared  in  Greece,  having 
been  requested  to  punish  Amphissa,  a  town  in  Locris, 
that  had  been  guilty  of  sacrilege.  Instead,  however, 
of  proceeding  against  this  place,  he  seized  Elateia,  a 
town  in  Phocis,  evidently  intending  to  gain  a  strong 
footing  in  central  Greece. 

The  TLebans  and  Athenians  were  at  last  alarmed, 
and  determined  to  take  the  field  against  tliis  dangerous 
foe.  Philip  met  them  on  the  plains  of  Chaeroueia 
(August  7,  338  B.C.).  Here  the  Macedonian  troops 
showed  that  their  careful  training  and  drill  had  been  to 
some  purpose.     The  Greeks  were  completely  routed. 

All  the  states,  except  Sparta,  immediately  acknowl- 
edged the  supremacy  of  Philip. 

Philip's  empire  now  included  all  Greece  as  well  as 
Macedonia.  Not  satisfied  with  this,  he  turned  his 
ambitious  plans  towards  Persia.  He  could  not  rest 
until  the  inhabitants  of  this  vast  country  were  num- 
bered among  his  subjects.  But  in  the  midst  of  his 
preparations  he  was  assassinated  at  the  age  of  forty- 
seven,  after  a  reign  of  twenty-three  years. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 
Alexander  the  Great,  336-323  B.a 

PniLTP  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Alexander.  At 
the  beginning  of  his  reign,  Alexander  quelled  several 
rebellions,  marched  down  into  Greece,  and  received 
from  it  proof's  of  submission.  On  his  return  to  Mace- 
donia, he  found  it  necessary  to  invade  Thrace,  and 
crush  his  enemies  in  that  region. 

While  he  was  absent  on  this  expedition,  a  false 
report  was  spread  in  Greece  that  he  had  been  killed. 
Thebes  immediately  revolted  (335  B.C.),  and  her  exam- 
ple would  probably  have  been  imitated  by  the  other 
cities  of  Greece,  had  not  the  young  monarch  appeared 
unexpectedly  in  Bceotia.  He  stormed  Thebes,  massa- 
cred her  citizens,  and  completely  destroyed  the  city. 
The  few  survivoi*s  were  sold  into  slavery.  All  Greece 
was  thoroughly  terrified  by  this  vengeance  of  Alexan- 
der, and  gave  him  no  further  trouble. 

Alexander  now  determined  to  carry  out  the  plans  of 
his  father,  and  invade  Persia.  In  the  spring  of  334  B.C. 
he  crossed  the  Hellespont  with  an  army  of  about  35,000 
men.  This  army  consisted  entirely  of  veteran  troops 
who  had  had  a  long  experience  in  warfare  under  Philip. 
The  Persians  awaited  his  approach  near  the  river  Grani- 
cus  in  Mysia.  Their  forces  outnumbered  those  of 
Alexander,  but  the  superior  discipline  of  the  Mace- 
donian troops  won  the  day.     The  result  of  this  victory 


ISSUS  AND  ARBELA. 


Ill 


was,  that  the  greater  part  of  Asia  Minor  revolted  from 
tlie  Persians  and  sided  with  Alexander. 

The  conqueror  now  marched  through  Asia  Minor,  and 
found  the  Persian  monarch  himself  (Darius  IH.)  with 
an  immense  army  of  600,000  men  awaiting  him  at  Issus 
(November,  333  B.C.).  Darius  had  intended  to  fight  on 
the  plain  of  Antioch,  where  his  vast  army  would  have 
room  to  act.  But,  as  Alexander  did  not  come  to  meet 
him,  he  grew  impatient,  and  advanced  into  the  defiles 
which  lie  between  Syria  and  Cilicia,  near  Issus.  In  a 
narrow  valley  the  armies  met,  where  numbers,  upon 
which  the  Persians  relied,  were  of  no  avail,  but  rather 
an  impediment.  Under  such  circumstances  Alexander 
was  easily  victorious. 

After  the  victory  of  Issus,  Alexander  conquered  the 
cities  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  most 
important  of  which  was  Tyre.  This  place  endured  a 
siege  of  seven  months.  When  it  was  finally  taken 
(July,  332  B.C.),  the  inhabitants  who  escaped  massacre 
were  sold  into  slavery.  Alexander  next  marched  into 
Egypt,  and,  having  subdued  the  country,  founded  Alex- 
andreia  near  the  mouth  of  the  Nile,  which  afterwards 
became  a  wealthy  and  populous  city. 

After  these  conquests,  Alexander  sought  out  Darius 
in  the  heart  of  his  Empire.  The  Persian  king  had, 
meanwhile,  collected  the  entire  forces  at  his  command, 
determined  to  make  a  final  stand  against  the  intruder. 
It  was  on  the  field  of  Arbela  (October,  331  b.c),  near 
Babylon,  that  the  comparative  strength  of  Persian  and 
Macedonian  discipline  was  fairly  tested.  Darius  had 
Belected  his  own  ground,  and  had  every  natural  advan- 
tage in  his  favor.  Here  his  defeat  was  owing  both  to 
the  superiority  of  the  European  to  the  Asiatic  soldier, 


112 


DEATH  OF  ALEXANDER, 


and  to  the  consummate  ability  of  the  Macedonian 
commander. 

The  result  of  Arbela  was  that  the  Persian  Empire 
became  a  mere  dependency  of  Macedonia.  Darius 
himself  was  shortly  after  murdered. 

The  ambition  of  Alexander  was  still  unsatisfied.  He 
conceived  the  startling  plan  of  conquering  India ;  and 
Jiad  not  his  soldiers,  tired  out  by  such  an  uninterrupted 
series  of  campaigns,  refused  to  proceed,  his  empire 
would  have  been  bounded  on  the  east  only  by  the 
ocean.  As  it  was,  he  advanced  to  the  river  Hyphasis, 
a  branch  of  the  Indus. 

Alexander  was  no  selfish  conqueror.  He  did  not 
conquer  simply  for  the  sake  of  conquering.  Wherever 
he  went  he  im|)roved  the  country.  Throughout  Persia 
commerce  revived,  and  new  vigor  was  infused  into  the 
Asiatic  blood.  It  was  his  hope  to  extend  his  kingdoms 
still  further  by  the  conquest  of  Arabia,  when  he  was 
suddenly  cut  off  by  a  fever  (June,  323  B.C.),  in  the 
thirteenth  year  of  his  reign  and  the  thirty-third  of  his 
age.  The  empire  which  he  had  built  up  so  quickly 
broke  as  quickly  into  fragments  now  that  its  head  was 
gone. 

The  news  of  Alexander's  death  was  received  with  great 
joy  throughout  Greece.  Demosthenes  again  endeavored 
to  arouse  by  his  eloquence  the  Athenians,  with  but  little 
result.  Athens  never  afterwards  possessed  any  political 
power.  Her  greatness  was  gone.  Iler  glory,  which 
had  outshone  that  of  any  other  city,  was  deiiartcd. 

But  her  real  empire  —  that  over  the  minds  of  men 

still  exists  in  the  writings  of  her  great  scholars. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

Greece  and  Macedonia  from  Alp:xander  to  their 
Conquest  by  the  Romans. 

The  news  of  Alexander's  death  reached  Greece  m 
the  summer  of  323  B.C.  A  large  confederacy  was 
formed,  and  war  begun,  in  the  expectation  of  freeing 
Greece  from  the  Macedonian  yoke.  This  war,  called 
the  Lamian  war  (323-321  B.C.),  was  a  perfect  failure ; 
and,  in  the  defeat  at  Crannon,  the  yoke  of  Macedonia 
was  riveted  upon  Greece  more  firmly  than  ever. 

From  this  time,  Greece  becomes  little  more  than  a 
tool  in  the  hands  of  competitors  for  empire  elsewhere. 

Antipater,  one  of  Alexander's  generals,  who  was  now 
the  ruler  of  Macedonia,  died  in  318  b.c,  leaving  the 
regency  to  his  brother  ofiicer,  Polysperchon. 

Cassander,  the  eldest  son  of  Antijjater,  was  disap- 
pointed at  not  receiving  the  kinglom,  and  raised  a 
rebellion  against  Polysperchon,  which  resulted  favor- 
ably. He  occupied  the  throne  from  316  to  296  b.c. 
Cassauder  was  followed  by  his  son  Thessalonice  (298- 
297  B.C.)  ;  he,  by  his  two  brothers,  Antipater  II.  and 
Alexander  (297-294  B.C.).  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  then 
ascended  the  throne.  The  sceptre  fell  to  his  descend- 
ants, who  held  it  for  more  than  one  hundred  years,  until 
Perseus  was  carried  away  as  a  captive,  to  grace  the 
triumph  of  a  Roman  conqueror  (168  b.c). 

u 


114 


CAPTURE  OF  CORINTH. 


During  this  time,  the  Achaeana  made  an  effort  to 
unite  the  Greek  states  into  one  body,  whose  common 
interests  would  make  them  stronger  than  when  dis- 
united by  local  feuds  and  jealousies.  The  Achajan 
league,  led  (251  b.c.)  by  Aratus  of  Sicyon,  and  after- 
wards (183  B.C.)  by  Philopoemen  of  Megalopolis,  was 
successful.  But  the  feuds  of  the  Acarnanians  and 
^tolians  prepared  the  way  for  the  great  conquerors  of 
the  world  to  step  in.  Corcyra  and  Epidamnus  became 
Roman  allies ;  and  Roman  allies  soon  became  Roman 
subjects.  The  Romans,  having  once  obtained  a  foot- 
hold in  a  place,  never  gave  it  up.  After  the  battle  of 
Pydna  (168  B.C.),  which  decided  the  fate  of  Macedonia, 
the  Roman  general,  Mummius,  marched  to  Corinth, 
and  captured  it  (14G  b.c).  The  Acha3an  league  was 
thus  brought  to  an  end ;  and  Greece  became  a  Roman 
province,  under  the  name  of  Achaia. 


CHAPTER  XXYI. 

Ancient  Gbeek  Wbitees. 


POETS. 

Epic. 

Homer,  see  page  8. 

Hesiod,  born  at  Ascra,  in  Bceotia.  Lived  about  the 
same  time  as  Homer.  Principal  works  are  the  "The- 
ogony,"  an  account  of  the  origin  of  the  world  and  the 
birth  of  the  gods;  the  "Works  and  Days,"  in  which  he 
lays  down  moral  maxims  for  the  regulation  of  our 
daily  conduct. 

Tbagic. 

-^sciiYLus,  bom  at  Eleusis,  in  Attica,  525  b.c.  ;  died 
in  Sicily,  456  b.c.  Seven  of  his  plays  have  come  down 
to  us. 

Sophocles,  bom  at  Athens,  495  b.c;  died  406  b.c. 
Seven  plays  have  been  preserved. 

Euripides,  bom  at  Salamis,  480  b.c.  ;  died  406  b.c. 
Nineteen  plays  are  extant. 

Comic. 

Aristophanes,  born  at  Athens,  444  b.c.  ;  died  about 
880  B.C.    Eleven  plays  preserved. 


116 


\ 


HISTORIANS  AND  ORATORS. 


PROSE  WRITERS. 


Historians. 

ITerodotus  (calletl  the  father  of  history),  born  at 
Ilaliciirnnssus,  in  Caria,  484  B.C. ;  fVied  about  408  B.C. 
His  history  embraces  a  period  of  about  240  years,  en<l- 
ing  in  the  year  478  B.C. 

TiiucYDiDES,  born  at  Athens,  471  B.C. ;  died  in  exile, 
in  Thrace,  391  B.C.  His  history  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  in  eight  books,  closes  in  the  year  411  B.C.  This 
history  is  a  very  careful  and  impartial  composition,  differ- 
ino^  from  that  of  Herodotus,  which  is  full  of  episodes 
and  wonderful  tales. 

Xenopiion,  born  about  445  B.C. ;  died  about  359  b.c. 
Works:  Hellenica,  a  continuation  of  the  history  of 
Thucydides;  Anabasis,  an  account  of  the  expedition  of 
the  "Ten  Thousand;"  Cyropaedia,  the  life  of  Cyrus  the 
Great;  MemorabUia,  a  defence  of  Socrates  and  his 
philosophy. 

OliATORS. 

Pericles,  born  at  Athens,  about  499  B.C. ;  died  429 
B.C.     (See  i)agos  Gl,  03,  and  74.) 

Of  this  distinguished  orator  and  stah?sman  Thucy- 
dides says :  "  All  the  time  that  he  stood  at  the  head  of 
the  state,  he  governed  it  with  moderation,  and  watched 
over  its  safety.  Under  him  it  rose  to  the  highest  i)itch 
of  greatness.  The  cause  of  his  influence  was  that  he 
was^ powerful  in  dignity  of  character  and  wisdom;  that 
he  proved  himself  to  be  pre-eminently  the  most  incor- 
ruptible of  men ;  and  that  he  restrained  the  people 
freely,  and  led  them  instead  of  being  led  by  thera." 


ORATORS  AND  PHILOSOPHERS. 


117 


Demosthenes,  born  at  Athens,  382  b.c.  ;  died  322  b.c. 
The  first  attempt  of  this  great  orator  at  eloquence  was 
a  perfect  failure ;  he  was  even  hooted  ofi*  the  platform. 
He  then  withdrew  from  the  public,  and  devoted  himself 
sedulously  for  some  time  to  the  study  of  oratory.  He 
is  said  to  have  shut  himself  up  for  three  months  in  a 
subterranean  chamber,  copying  and  recopying  the  his- 
tory of  Thucydides,  that  he  might  thereby  improve  his 
own  style.  Such  careful  training  was  rewarded  with 
success,  and  when  he  next  ventured  to  speak  in  public 
he  was  received  with  favor.  Of  his  orations,  which 
have  always  been  considered  models  of  eloquence, 
sixty-one  have  come  down  to  us. 

^sciiiNES,  bom  389  b.c.  ;  died  314  b.c.  Only  three 
orations  have  been  preserved.  (See  pages  108  and 
109.) 

Philosophers. 

Thales,  born  at  Miletus,  630  b.c.  ;  died  about  540 
B.C.  Called  the  Ionic  philosopher.  He  maintained 
that  water  was  the  first  principle  of  all  things. 

Pythagoras,  born  at  Samos ;  flourished  first  half  of 
the  sixth  century.  He  taught  the  transmigration  of 
souls. 

Socrates,  born  469  b.c.;  died  399  b.c.    (See  page 

99.) 

Plato,  born  429  b.c.  ;  died  347  b.c.  He  was  a  disci- 
ple of  Socrates,  and  founded  the  Academic  school  of 
philosophy. 

Aristotle,  born  at  Stagira,  in  Chalcidice,  384  b.c.  ; 
died  in  Euboea,  322  b.c.  He  founded  the  Peripatetic 
Bcbool  of  philosophy,  so  called  because  he  delivered 
his  lectures  walking  about. 


118 


CHRONOLOGY. 


y 


B.O. 

1194-1184. 
1104. 

1045. 


850  (?) 
^825  (?) 
^76. 


A 


752-684. 
'  743-724. 
685-668. 
684. 
^624. 
/^94. 
'^560-510. 
558-529. 
529-522. 
527. 

521-486. 
514. 

510. 

508. 
500. 
499. 


/ 


/ 


493. 

490. 

489. 
486. 


CHRONOLOGY. 

Siege  of  Troy. 

Return  of  the  Heracleidae. 
(  Death  of  Codrus,  last  king  of  Athens. 
(  Medon,  first  life-Archon. 

Homer. 

Lycurgus. 

First  Olympiad. 

Decennial  Archons. 

First  Messenian  War. 

Second  Messenian  War. 

Annual  Archons. 

Draco. 

Solon. 

The  PeisiatratidaB. 

Cyrus  L 

Cambyses. 

Death  of  FelBiatratus. 

Darius  L 

Assassination  of  Hipparchus. 
f  Hippias  expelled  from  Athens. 
(  Clelsthenes.  ^ 

Subjugation  of  Scythia  by  Darius  I. 

Ionic  Revolt. 

Sardis  burned. 
(Fleet  of  Mardonius  wrecked  off  Mount 
1     Athos. 

r  First  Peraian  Invasion  of  Greece. 
I  Marathon  (September  12), 

Death  of  Miltiades. 

Death  of  Darius  L 


CHRONOLOGY. 


119 


/ 


B.C. 

486-465. 

482. 

480. 


/ 


479. 

478. 
477. 

y476. 

475  (?) 
470  (?) 
471. 
471. 
468. 
^  466. 


/ 


464. 


/ 


461. 

457. 

.     456. 

455. 

449. 

447. 

445. 

^'  435. 

432. 


/ 


432. 


Xerzes  I. 

Aristeides  ostracized. 
{  Second  Persian  Invasion  of  Greece. 
K  Thermopylae  and  Artemisium  (July). 
Csalamis  (September  20). 

Plataeae  and  Mycale  (September). 

Capture  of  Sestoa. 

Capture  of  Byzantium. 

Confederacy  of  Delos.  N 

Capture  of  Xiion. 

Capture  of  Scyros. 

Themistocles  banished. 

Fausanias  convicted  of  treason. 

Aristeides  dies. 

Eurymedon.     Nazos  revolts. 
f  Uprising  of  the  Helots  (sometimes  called 
<      the   Third    Messenian  War).      Thasos 
(     revolts. 

c  Alliance  between  Athens  and  Sparta  broken 
J  off.  Cimon  ostracized,  but  recalled  in 
(     456  B.C. 

Tanagra.    Completion  of  Long  Walls. 

CBnophyta. 

Revolt  of  Helots  put  down. 

Death  of  Themistocles  and  Cimon. 
(  Coroneia  marks  the  end  of  Athens'  control 
\     in  BcBotia. 

Thirty  Years'  truce  concluded  by  Pericles. 

Cape  Actium. 

Cape  Cheimerium  (Sybota), 
( Revolt  of  Potidaja. 
(  Congress  at  Sparta  (December). 


^ 


120 

BC. 

431-404. 
/,429. 

427. 

425. 

,424. 

422. 

421. 
/4I8. 
/4I6. 

415-413. 
^413. 

412. 


CHRONOLOGY, 


/ 
/ 


411. 


Feloponnesian  "War. 
Death  of  Pericles. 
(  Capture  of  Mitylene. 
(.  Flatseas  surrenders  to  the  Spartans, 
Sphacteria. 
Delium. 

Death  of  Cleon  and  Brasidas. 
Peace  of  Nicias. 
Mantineia. 

Aid  asked  of  Athens  by  Egesta. 
Sicilian  Expedition. 

Occupation  of  Deceleia  by  the  Spartans. 
f  Revolt  of  Chios,  Lesbos,  and  Rhodes. 
<  Naval  fight  off  Miletus.    Alliance  between 
(     Sparta  and  Persia. 
The  Four  Hundred  (March-June). 
411  ^A     *l^    (-^cibiades    rejoins    his    countrymen    at 

(      Snmos. 
411  ^T  1  ^   (Victory  of  Athenians  over  Spartans  at 

^  ^^^^'\      Abydos. 
411  (Oct.).     Cynossema.  * 

410  (Feb.).   Cyzicus. 
408  (June).  Alcibiades  returns  to  Athens. 

r  Notium.  Alcibiades  deprived  of  command, 
407.  4      and  retires  to  his  private  estates  in  the 

(      Chcrsonesus. 
406.  MytUene. 

^  406  (Sept.).  Arginusae. 
405  (Aug.).  iEgos-Fotami. 

-^404-408!      (  rpr,     ^^.  ,      „, 

N      "i  The  Thirty  Tyrants. 
/(8  mos.).    C 

404-371.         Supremacy  of  Sparta. 

/ 


CHRONOLOGY, 


121 


/ 


{ 


B.C. 

399. 
401. 
399-394. 

394. 

393. 

387. 

376. 

/371. 

/,371. 

^371-361. 

/364. 

362. 

358-355. 
y357-346. 
^346. 

338. 
/33O-323. 
7335. 

334. 
^^333  (Nov.). 
^332  (July). 

332. 
J  331  (Oct.). 


Death  of  Socrates. 

Cunaxa. 

War  of  Sparta  with  Persia. 

Corinthian  "War. 

Coroneia,  Cnidus. 

Long  Walls  rebuilt  by  Conon. 

Feace  of  Antalcidas. 

Defeat  of  Spartans  at  Naxos. 

Feace  of  Callias. 

Leuctra. 

Theban  Supremacy. 

Death  of  Felopidas  at  Cynoscephalae. 

Mantineia.     Death  of  Epameinondas. 

Social  "War. 

Sacred  "War. 

Philip  of  Macedonia  first  called  to  Greece. 

Chderoueia. 

Alexander  the  Great. 

Revolt  and  reduction  of  Thebes. 

Qranicus. 

Issus. 

Capture  of  Tyre. 

Founding  of  Alexandrela. 

Arbela. 


6 


PERSIAN  KINGS. 


Cyrus  I.  (558-529  b.c.V 
I  —" 


I 
Cambyses  (529-522  b.c.). 


Atossa-Darius  I.  (5^21-486  b.c.). 
Xerxes  I.  (486-465  b.c). 


Art  A  XERXES  I.  (465-425  b.c). 


Darius  II.  (Notlius)  (425-405  B.a). 
Artaxerxes  II.  (405-362  b.c). 


Artaxerxes  III.  (359-338  b.c). 

Darius    III.   (perhaps  descended  from  Dariits  U.) 
(336-330  B.C.). 


I  ;n'  D  E  X. 


Tho  numbers  refer  to  the  pages. 


A. 


AbydoR,  36.  94. 

Academic  School  of  Philosophy,  we 
I'lato. 

Academy,  67. 

Acarnania,  XL 

Achxans,  2. 

Achaeus,  2. 

Achaia,  12. 

Achelous,  13. 

Achilles,  7. 

AchraiUna,  84. 

Aeroceraunia,  11,  68. 

Acropolis,  41,  49,  61,  65,  67. 

Actium,  11;  battle  of,  69. 

^^t;aleos,  Mount,  14. 

Jij;lna,  war  with  Athens,  34,  38; 
complains  against  Athens,  70. 

iEfjos-Potami,  96. 

iEolians,  2. 

iEneas,  7. 

JEolus,  2. 

iEsehlnes,  108,  115. 

Jischylus,  113. 

iEtolia,  11. 

Africa,  16. 

Agamemnon,  7. 

Agesilaus,  lOL 

Agora,  8,  67. 

Alcibiiides,  character  of,  81;  com- 
mands fleet  for  Sicily,  82;  ban- 
ished, 83;  advises  the  Spartans, 
90;  goes  over  to  Persia,  91;  joins 
Thrasvbulus  at  Samos,  93;  gains 
the  battle  of  Cyzicus,   94;    de- 

8 rived  of  command,  95;   death, 
6. 


Alcmajonldae,  27. 

Alcmena,  5. 

Alexander  the  Great,  110-112. 

Alexandria,  111. 

Alpheius,  9,  13. 

Aniphipolis,  16,  79;   battle  of,  80, 
107. 

Amphissa,  109. 

Ampliitryon,  5. 

Ampheia,  21. 

Anabasis,  100, 114. 

Anapus,  84. 

Antalcidas,  peace  of,  102. 

Antiochus,  95. 

Aphrodite,  3,  4,  6,  7. 

Apollo,  4,  9,  31,  76. 

Antlphon,  93. 

Arbela,  111,  112. 

Arcadia,  12. 

Archidamus,  73,  74. 

Archon,  21,24,  25. 

Areiopagus,  20,  66. 

Ares,  4,  66. 

Arginusae,  95,  96. 

Argolis,  12,  15. 

Argos,  3, 15,  23,  81,  101. 

Ahabignes,  42. 

Aristeides,  character  of,  34,  55,  56 ; 
ostracism  of,   35;    at  Psyttaleia, 
42;  gains  infkience,  44;  at  Pla- 
taeae,   45;  commands  fleet  with 
Cimon,  50;  simplicitj-,  51;  takes 
chief  command  of  fleet,  52 ;  death 
of,  55 ;  succeeded  by  Cimon,  57. 
Aristodemus,  21. 
Aristogeiton,  26. 
Aristomenes,  22. 
Aristophanes,  113. 


124 


INDEX. 


Aristotle,  115. 

Artaxerxcs  I.,  55,  120;    IT.,   101, 

120;  HI.,  120. 
Artemis,  4,  31. 

Arteiiiisium,  38;  battle  of,  40. 
Asupus.  14. 
Astu,  65. 

Athena,  3,  4,  6;  PromJlchos,  66. 
Athens,  early  governnieut  of,  24; 

description  of,  05-07. 
Athos,  Mount,  30,  36,  37. 
Atossa,  120. 
Atreus,  3. 
Aulis,  7. 


B. 

Babylon,  100,  111. 

Henia,  the,  67. 

Bceotia,  description  of,  14. 

BouUS  the,  8,  27. 

Brasldas,  77 ;  character  of,  79 ;  death 
of,  80. 

Byzantium,  16;  taken  by  the  Athe- 
nians, 50|  54. 


c. 


Cadmeia,  the,  102. 

Cadmus,  3. 

Callias,  peace  of,  104. 

Callicratldas,  95,  96. 

Cambunian  Mountains,  12. 

Cambyses,  29,  120. 

Caria,  58,  114. 

Cat£ina,  83,  84. 

Cecrops,  2. 

Cephissus,  the,  14,  65. 

Ceres,  see  Demeter. 

Charoneia,  109. 

Chalcidlce,  115. 

Cheiraerium,  Cape,  69. 

Chersonesus,  48,  95, 107. 

Chios  revolts,  liO. 

Chronoloj,'y,  llG-119. 

Cilicia,  111. 

Cimon,  pays  his  father's  fine,  33; 
commands  fleet  with  Aristeides, 
50;  compared  with  Pausanias, 
51 ;  succeeds  Theraistocles  in  in- 
fluence, 57;  victory  at  Euryme- 
don,  58;  character,  59;   banish- 


ment, 60;  influence  declines,  01  j 

at  Tanagra.  62;  death  of,  63. 
Clei.sthcncs,  25,  27;  constitution  of, 

27,  61. 
Cleon,   76,   78;    influence   of,   79; 

death  of,  80,  81. 
Cnidus,  15,  101. 
Codrus,  2,  24. 
Colonies,  Greek,  15, 16. 
Conoa,  95;   rebuilds  Long  Walls, 

101. 
Copals,  Lake,  13,  14. 
Conyra,  12;  troubles  with  Corinth, 

68,  61);  alliance  with  Athens,  69; 

civil  quarrels,  76,  83. 
Corinth,  9,  70,  101. 
Coroneia,  63,  lOL 
Council  of  400,  25,  27. 
Crituis,  98,  99. 
Croesus,  29. 
Cumie,  16. 
Cunaxa,  100. 
Cycludcs,  12. 
( J^'nosceijlu'ila;,  106. 
Cynossema,  94. 
Cyprus,  50. 
CyrGne,  16. 
Cyropa'dia,  114. 
Cyrus  L,  29, 120;  brother  of  ArU- 

xerxes,  94. 
Cyzlcus,  94. 

D. 

Daniius,  3. 

Darius  L,  29,  120;  II.,  100,  120; 
IN.,  Ill,  120. 

Datis,  30. 

Deceleia,  90,  93. 

Decennial  Archons,  2,  24. 

Delaneira,  5. 

Delium,  79,  81. 

Delos,  12;  confederacy  of,  52,  53, 
57,  58,  63;  purification  of,  76; 
103. 

Delphi,  4,  40, 107. 

Demeter,  3,  4. 

Demosthenes,  the  general,  77;  ar- 
rives at  Syracuse,  86;  death,  88; 
the  orator^  108 ;  the  Pliilippics  of^ 
108,  112. 

Dodona,  3. 

Dorian  Invasion,  6. 

Dorus,  2. 


INDEX. 


125 


Draco,  25,  99. 

Dionysiac  Theatre,  62,  67. 

Dyrruchium,  68. 

£. 

Ecclesia,  25,  27. 

I'gesta,  82. 

Eg>'pt,  3,  29,  IIL 

Eio'n,  16,  57,  58. 

Eira,  22. 

Elateia,  109. 

Eleusis,  113. 

Elis,  12,  13. 

Epameinondas,  102,  103,  104,  105; 

death  of,  106. 
Ephesus,  15,  30,  95. 
Ephialtes,  39. 
Epiiors,  18,  51,  54,  55. 
Epidanmus,  6H,  69. 
Epipolaj,  85,  86,  87. 
Epeirus,  3,  11. 
Erectheium,  66. 
Eretria,  31. 
Eris,  6. 

Euboca,  12,  40,  63,  115. 
Eupatrldip,  24. 
Euphrates,  20,  100. 
Euripides,  113. 
Eurlpus,  40. 
Eurutas,  13,  14. 
Eurybiiides,  38,  41,  44. 
Eurymedon,   58;   the  general,  80; 

death  of,  87. 
Eurystheus,  5. 

F. 

Four  Hundred,  the,  93,  94. 

G. 

Granlcus,  110. 

Gylippus,  84;  arrives  at  Syracuse, 
85;  86. 


H. 

Ilallcamassua,  15. 
Ilannodius,  26. 
Hector,  7. 


Helen,  7. 

Heliwa,  27. 

Helots,  19,  22;  revolt  of,  59,  62. 

Hellas,  2,  15. 

Hestia,  4. 

Helien,  2. 

Hellenes,  2. 

llellenica,  114. 

Hellespont,  43,  48,  110. 

Hephastus,  4. 

Hera,  4,  6. 

Ileracleidaj,  6,  19. 

Heracles,  5. 

Herodotus,  114;  birthplace  of,  15. 

Hermes,    14;    mutilation   of   the 

Hermaj,  83. 
Hesiod,  113. 
Hipparcbus,  26. 
Hippias,  26,  27,  31. 
Homer,  birthplace  of,  8,  113. 
Hyphasis,  112. 


I. 

Iliad,  8. 
Ilissus,  14,65. 
Illvricum,  11. 
Indus,  112. 
Ionian  Sea,  11,  69. 
Innians,  2.  51. 
Ionic  Hevolt,  30. 
Issus,  30,  IIL 
Isthmian  Games,  9. 
Italy,  7. 
Ithaca,  7,  8. 
llhome,  21,  59,  62. 


L. 

Lacedirmonians,  21  foot-note. 

Lacoiiia,  12,  14. 

Laniachus,  82;  character  of,  85. 

I^urium,  Mount,  35. 

Leon,  85. 

Leonidas,  38,  39. 

Leotychldes,  47. 

Lesbos,  12, 90,  95. 

Leuctra,  105,  106. 

Literature,  Greek,  U3-115. 

Locris,  11,  109. 

Long  Walls,  67. 

Lycia.  58. 


126 


INDEX. 


Lycurgus,  17;  constitution  of,  17- 

19;  discipline  of,  19-21. 
Lydia,  58. 
^.ysauder,  94,  96. 


M. 


Macedonia,  11,  107,  108,  109, 110. 

Maeander,  15,  55. 

Map^na  (Ira'cia,  16. 

Maiiac  Gulf,  38. 

Mantineia,  81,  106, 107. 

Marathon,  11,  31;  battle  of,  32,  46. 

Wardonius,  30,  36,  43,  44,  45,  47. 

Mars,  set  Ares. 

Massilia,  16. 

Nedes,  the,  29. 

!Mediinnus.  25. 

Mfdon,  2,  24. 

Mediterranean,  11. 

Me^^ulopOlis,  106. 

Mejjara,  70. 

Memorabilia,  114. 

Menohius,  7. 

Mercurv,  see  Hermes. 

Mcssene,  106. 

Messenian  War,  1st,  21;  2d,  22;  3d, 
59. 

Miletus,  15,  30,  91, 115. 

Miltiudes,  comniands  at  Marathon, 
32;  expedition  aijainst  Paros,  33 ; 
57. 

Mindarus,  94. 

Minerva,  see  Athena. 

MinoH,  5. 

Muiiychia,  67. 

Mycjile,  47. 

Mycen;e,  7,  15. 

Mytilene,  15;  revolt  of,  75;  sur- 
render of,  76,  95. 


N. 


Napoleon,  105. 
Navarino,  77. 

Kaxos,  12;  revolt  of,  67, 104 
Kemean  Games,  9. 
Nicias,  79;  peace  of,  80,  81;  takes 
command  of  fleet  against  Sicily, 


82;  superstition  of,  86,  87;  death 
of,  88:  poor  generalship,  89. 

Nike  AptCros,  66. 

Nile,  111. 

Notium,  95. 


0. 


Odysseus,  7,  8. 
Odyssey,  8. 
(Enophyta,  C3. 
CEta,  Mount,  6, 12,  33. 
( )lympia,  9. 
Olympiad,  9. 
Olympic  Festival,  8. 
Olympus.  4. 
Ortygia,  84. 
Oslraci&m,  28. 


P. 


PallSne,  16, 70. 

Pamphylia,  58. 

Pangoius,  Mount,  58. 

Paris,  6,  7. 

Parnassus,  Blount,  12,  40. 

i'amcs,  Mount,  12,  90. 

Panion,  Mount,  12. 

Parthenon,  65. 

Pausanias,  45,  50;  proud  condnct, 
51;  death  of,  54;  moral  upon,  56. 

Peirajeus,  49,  67,  73. 

Peisander,  92,  93. 

Peisistratus,  28. 

Peisistratldte,  26,  27. 

Pela.sgi,  1. 

Pelasgic,  1,  3. 

Peleus,  6,  7. 

Pelion,  Mount,  12. 

Pelopldas,  102,  lu3,  106. 

Peloponnesus,  11. 

Peloponnesian  War,  causes  of,  68 
allies  of  Athens  and  Sparta  in, 
72;   finances  of  Athens   at  the 
beginning  of,  72;  divisions  of,  72. 

Pelops,  3. 

Peneius,  the,  13, 14 

Penelope,  7. 

Perdiccas,  70. 


INDEX. 


127 


PerioDci,  18. 

Pericles,  61;  statesmanship  of,  63; 
73;  death  of,  74,  91,  97;  character 
of,  114. 

Peripatetic,  116. 

Persians,  origin  of,  29;  Persian 
kings,  120. 

Phalerum,  41,  42,  67. 

Pheidias,  67. 

Philip,  108;  assassinated,  109. 

Philippics  of  Demosthenes,  108. 

Phocis,  11.  40,  107,  108,  109. 

Pha'uicians,  3. 

Phrj'gia,  3. 

Phrygians,  3. 

Phylc,  99. 

Plague  at  Athens,  74. 

Plata'ie,  assi>ts  at  Marathon,  31; 
38;  40;  44;  battle  of,  45,  46,  47; 
surprised  by  Thebans,  73;  be- 
sieged by  Spartans,  76. 

Plato,  115. 

Plemmvrium,  8G. 

Pnyx,  '60. 

Poseidon,  3,  4,  9. 

Potidiva,  16,  70, 107. 

Priam,  7. 

Propyliea,  65,  66. 

Pylos,  77. 

Pythagoras,  115. 

Pytiuau  Uames,  9. 


R. 

Retreat  of  the  10,000, 100. 
Khegium,  83. 

Rhodos,  12,  22;  revolt  of,  90. 
Rome,  7. 


S. 


Sacred  Band,  103. 

Sacred  War,  107. 

Salamis,  8,  40;    battle  of,  41-42; 

46;  47;  54;  113. 
Samos,  12,  47,  115. 
Sardis  capture  of,  30,  47,  100. 
Scvros,  57. 
Sehnus,  82. 

Sestos,  36 ;  siege  of,  48. 
Sicily,  expedition  to,  81-89. 


Social  War,  107. 

Society  among  early  Greeks,  8. 

Socrates,  81,  99,  114, 115. 

Solon,  25,  99. 

Sophocles,  113. 

Sparta,  7;  congress  at,  70-,  Them- 

istocles  at,  48. 
Sphacteria,  77 ;  capture  of,  78,  80. 
Stagira,  115. 
Strvmon,  57,  79. 
Sybota,  69,  70. 
Svke,  85. 
Syracuse,  16,  82.  83;  des&riptionof 

84;  siege  of,  85-87. 
Syria,  100,  111. 


T. 


Tanarum,  11. 

Taniigra,  14,  62,  79. 

Tartntum,  10. 

Taygetus,  12. 

Tegra,  15.  106. 

Tempe,  38. 

Ten  Thousand,  retreat  of,  100,  114. 

Thales,  115. 

Thasos,  12;  revolt  of,  58. 

Thebes,  14,  101,  102,  103;  supre- 
macy of,  105,  106;  stormed  by 
Alexander  the  (Jreat,  110. 

Themistocles,  character  of,  34-35; 
41,  43,  55,  50;  <leceives  the 
Lacedemonians,  48;  building 
of  Peinveus,  49,  54;  declme  of 
influence,  and  death,  55,  57. 

Theramenes,  93. 

Thennopyhe,  37;  description  of, 
38;  battle  of,  39,  40. 

Theseium,  66. 

Theseus,  5. 

Thespiic,  14,  38,  40. 

Thetis,  6,  7. 

Thessalia,  11,  12.  13,  38,  44,  47. 

Thirty  Tyrants,  98,  99. 

Thrasvbulus,  93,  99. 

Thucydldes.  114. 

Thurii,  63,  83. 

Tiryns,  15. 

Tissaphemes,  92. 

Transmigration  of  souls,  see  Py- 
thagoras. 

Troezen,  15. 


128 


INDEX. 


Troy,  6,  8. 
Tyre,  111. 
TyrtjBus,  23. 

U,  V. 

Ulysses,  7. 

Venus,  «ee  Aphrodite. 

Virgil,  7. 

Vulcan,  see  HephaestuA 


Xanthippus,  47. 
Xenopbon,  100, 114. 


z. 


Zeus,  8,  6,  6,  9;    temple  of  Olym- 
pian, 66. 


Introduction  JPricea, 


June,  1885, 


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Hbcuba  and  Medea.    Edited  by  W.  B.  Smtth 60 

GREEK  DELECTUS.    Edited  by  H.  Youno 00 

HERODOTUS.  Edited  bv  T.  H.  L.  Leart.  Vol.  1.  (Books  1-2)  80  cts.; 

Vol.  II.  (Books  3-4)  8b  cts. ;  Vol.  III.  (Books  5-7)  80  cts.;  Vol.  IV. 

(Books  8-9) 00 

HOMER.  The  Iliad.  Edited  by  T.  H.  L.  Leart.  4  vols.,  each  .  .  .60 
The  Odyssbt.    Edited  by  Leart.    Vols.  I.-IIL,  each  60  cts. ; 

VoLIV M 

LUCIAN.    Select  Dla.logue8.    Edited  by  H.  Youno 60 

PLATO.    Apologt,  Crito,  and  PHiKDO.    Edited  by  J.  Davies    .    .      .80 

SOPHOCLES.    Antigone.    Edited  by  J.  Milner 80 

^—  (Edipds  Tyrannus.    Edited  by  H.  Young 40 

THUCYDIDES :  the  Peloponnesian  War.  Book  L  By  H.  Youno  .40 
XENOPHON :  the  Anabasis.  Ed.  by  H.  Young.  Vol.  L(Books  I.-III.)      .40 

Vol.  IL(B'ksIV.-VIL)      .40 

Pakeotric  on  Aoesilaus.    Edited  by  F.  W.  Jewitt 60 


LATIN-ENGLISH  DICTIONARY.    By  T.  Goodwin.    246  pages  .    .      JO 
ENGLISH-LATIN  DICTIONARY.    By  T.  Goodwin.    166  pages .    .      .60 

CiESAR  DE  BELLO  GALLICO.    Edited  by  H.  Youno .80 

CATULLUS,  TIBULLUS,  PROPERTIUS,   AND  OVID.     Edited  by 

W.  B.  Donne 80 

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by  W.  B.  Smith 80 

.  In  Catilinam,  Verrem,  et  pro  Archla.    Edited  by  Lbabt   •      .60 

Pro  S.  Roscio  Amerino.    Edited  by  J.  Davies 40 

CORNELIUS  NEPOS.    Edited  by  H.  Youno 40 

HORACE.    Odes,  Epodes,  and  Car.  Sjmj.    Edited  by  H.  Youno     ,      .60^ 

SATiREa,  Epistles,  and  Ars  Poet.    Edited  by  W.  B.  Smith  .      .60 

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.  Vol.  I.    (Books  1-6)  60  cts.;  Vol.  II.  (Books  7-12)     . '  .      .80 

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BIBLIOTHECA  classica. 

A  series  of  Greek  and  Latin  authors,  with  English  commentaries ;  edited 
by  various  scholars  under  the  direction  of  Georee  Long  and  Rev.  A.  J. 
Macleane.    8vo.     Cloth. 

**  A  credit  to  the  classical  learmng  of  England.**  —  London  Athenaeum. 

Reduced  net  Prices. 

Aeschylus,  by  F.  A.  Paley,  M.A.    4th  edition $5.60 

Cicero's  Orations,  by  George  Long,  M.A.    4  vols 20.00 

Separately,  VoL  I.,  $5  25;  VoL  U.,$4.50;  Vol  UI.,  $5.25;  VoL 
IV.,  $5.75. 

Demosthenes,  by  R.  Whiston,  M.A.    2  vols 10.00 

Either  vol.  separately       5.25 

Euripides,  by  F.  A.  Paley,  M.A.     3  vols 15.00 

Any  vol.   separately 5.25 

Herodotus,  by  Rev.  J.  \V.  Blakesley,  B.D.    2  vols.      ......  10.00 

Hesiod,  by  F.  A.  Paley,  M.A 3.25 

Homer's  Iliad,  by  F.  A.  Paley,  M.A.    2  vols *.    .  8.00 

Separately,  Vol.  L,  $4.00 ;  Vol.  II.,  $4.50. 
Horace,  by  Rev.  A.  J.  Macleane,  M.A. ;  new  edition,  revised  by 

Greorge  Long 5.60 

Juvenal  and  Persius,  by  Rev.  A.  J.   Macleane,  M.A. ;  new  edition, 

revised  by  George   Long 3.75 

Plato's  Phaedrus  and  Gorgias,  by  W.  H.  Thompson,  D.D.    2  vols.    .  4.75 

Either  vol.  separately 2.50 

Sophocles,  by  Rev.  F.  H.  Blaydes,  M.A.    Vol.  I.,  Oed.  Tyr.,  Oed. 

Col.,Antig 6.60 

Vol.  II.,  by  F.  A.  Paley,  M.A. ;  Philoct.,  Elect.,  Trach.,  Ajax.  8.76 

Tacitus,  The  Annals,  by  Rev.  P.  Frost 4.75 

Terence,  by  E.  St.  J.  Parry,  M.A 5.60 

Virgil,  by  J.  Conington,  M.A.    3  vols 12.50 

Separately,  Vol.1.,  Bucol.  and  Georg.,  $4.00;  Vol.  II.,  .ffineid, 
Bks.  1-6,  $4.50;  Vol.  III.,  -^neid,  Bks.  7-12,  $4.50. 

21^"  Any  volume  sent  post-paid  on  receipt  of  the  price.  Any  10  volumes, 
(0  per  cent  discount  from  above  prices.  Any  15  volumes,  15  per  cent  discount  from 
tbove  prices,    A  complete  set,  26  volumes,  for  $93.00. 


JOHN  ALLYN,  Importer  and  PubMer,  30,  Franklin  Street,  Boston. 


JOHN  ALLYN,  Publisher, 


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GREEK  TEXT   BOOKS. 

JBschylus,  Prometheus  Bound.   Edited  by  Professor  R.  H. 

Mather,  Amherst  College.     With  the  lyric  parts  arranged  ac- 

cording  to  the  system  of  Schmidt.    Second  Edition.    16mo,  cloth, 

180  pages.    $1.00. 

Prof    Rufus   B.   Richardson,   Dartmouth   College.  ^  Vrofessor  Uaiher 

is  h!ppy  in  ^^  selection  of  a  subject;  for  the  right  kind  o    an  echt.on  of 

Pronfetheus  was  still  wanting  and  much  needed.    I  am  much  pleased  with 

fhe  £  and  execution  of  the  book,  and  feel  that  it  will  afford  a  happy 

introduction  to  the  study  of  the  Greek  drama. 

Prof  T.  L.  Seip,  Muhlenberg  College,  Pa. -The  Introduction  is  Tery 
vairable  to  the  student,  and  meets  a  want  seldom  supphed  in  similar 
ToXs  The  article  on  the  lyric  parts,  and  the  metrical  ^-^^^^^>'-'-f^^ 
Toiidse  firm  much-needed  information.  The  text  is  very  .ood,  and  the 
notes  are  a  satisfactory  aid  for  beginners  m  Greek  Tragedy. 

Aristophanes,   Acharnians    and   Knights      E^^toxl    by 

W.C.  Green,  M. A.,  late  Fellow  of  King's  College,  Cambridge. 
(Catena  Classicorum.)     12mo,  210  pages.     S1.20. 

The  text  of  this  edition  is  mainly  that  of  Dindorf.  In  the  notes  brevity 
has  b^en  studied,  as  short  notes  are  more  likely  to  be  read  and  therefore,  to 
be  useful     Each  play  is  preceded  by  an  Introduction  and  an  Argument. 

Aristophanes,  Birds.  With  Notes  and  a  Metrical  Table,  by 
C.  C.  Felton,  LL.D.,  President  of  Harvard  University.  >ew 
Edition,  revised  by  W.  W.  Goodwin,  Eliot  Professor  of  Greek 
Literature  in  Harvard  University.     12mo,  250  pages.    ^1.10. 

Aristophanes,  Clouds.    With  Notes  and  a  Metrical  Table, 
by  C.  C.  Felton,  LL.D.     New  Edition,  revised  by  Professor  W. 
W.  Goodwin.     12mo,  250  pages.    $1.10. 
President  Felton.  by  his  tastes  and  his  studies,  was  ^«Pf^^".;^;^^ 
the  difficult  task  of  editing  Aristophanes,  and  the  -*^«,;;[;  ^^^V^;^^;- 
show  with  what  skill  and  thoroughness  the  congenia    labor  has  heen  per 
tied      Great  care  has  been  taken  to  explain  the  3";^-    -pres.^^^^ 
the  frequent  allusions  to  the  political  and  social  life  of  Athens      I"  j^Bjiew 
e^tLTrevised  by  Professor  Goodwii^  the  commentary  has  been  enlarged 
by  references  to  his  Moods  and  Tenses  of  the  Greek  Verb. 


JOHN  ALLYN,  Publisher, 


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Demosthenes,  on  the  Crown.    Edited  by  Professor  W.  S. 
IVlkr,  Amherst  College.   Seventh  Edition.  16mo,  304  pp.  $1.20. 

Prof.  A.  Harkness,  Brown  University,  Providence. — I  have  already 
expressed  to  Professor  Tyler  my  high  appreciation  of  his  De  Corona  of 
Demosthenes,  and  shall  take  pleasure  in  recommending  it  as  the  best  edition 
for  college  use. 

Prof.  J.  R.  Boise,  University  of  Chicago,  111.  —  Professor  Tyler,  in  his 
revision,  has  wisely  omitted  much  that  was  entirely  unnecessary,  or  out 
of  place,  in  a  work  of  this  kind  ;  and  his  additions  are  all  of  great  value. 
The  entire  work,  in  its  present  form,  seems  to  me  excellent.  I  know  of  no 
liandsomer  or  better  school  edition  of  tlie  Oration  on  the  Crown  published 
in  any  country. 

Demosthenes:  the  Olynthiacs  and  Philippics.     Edited 

by  Professor  W.  S.  Tyler,  Amherst  College.  Seventh  Edition, 
IGmo,  256  pages.  $1.20.  Separately  :  The  Olynthiacs,  70  cents; 
the  Philippics,  80  cents. 

Prof.  W.  W.  Groodwin,  Ilai-vard  College.  —  I  have  the  greatest  con- 
fidence in  Professor  Tyler's  scholarship  and  good  taste,  and  am  glad  to 
gay  that  I  find  the  book,  as  I  expected,  the  best  in  the  market. 

Prof.  M.  L.  D'Ooge.  University  of  Michigan.  —  We  have  just  finished 
reading  Professor  Tyler's  Olynthiacs  and  Pliilippics,  and  find  the  book 
very  serviceable.  The  annotations  are  clear  and  scholarly,  and  the  text  is 
very  correct. 

Fernald's  Greek  Historians.  Edited  b}^  Professor  O.  M. 
Fernald.  Williams  College.  With  three  maps.  Fourth  Edition, 
revised.     12mo,  412  pages.    $1.50. 

This  book  includes  extracts  from  Diodorus  Siculus,  Book 
IV.;  Herodotus,  Books  VI.,  VII.,  VIII.,  and  IX.;  Thucy- 
DIDE8,  Books  I.,  II.,  VI.,  VII.,  and  VIII.  Xenophon,  Hellen. 
Books  I. ,  II. 

Prof.  Jacob  Cooper,  Rutgers  College,  New  Brunswick,  N.J. — I  am  glad 
you  have  published  a  new  edition  of  Felton's  Selections.  This  book  has 
been  used  by  me  for  more  than  ten  years  with  great  satisfaction.  The 
references  and  notes  of  Professor  Fernald  add  greatly  to  its  value,  and  will 
make  it  still  more  deservedly  popular  than  before. 

Prof.  H.  Z.  McLain,  Wabash  College,  Crawfordsville,  Ind.  —  l  &m  using 
Fernald's  Selections  from  Greek  Historians,  and  regard  it  as  a  most  ex- 
cellent text-book,  its  notes  being  always  careful  and  accurate,  and  not  so 
full  or  numerous  as  to  make  the  students'  work  too  easy. 


JOHN  ALLYN,  Publisher, 


SO,  Franklin  Street,  Boston. 


Herodotus  and  Thucydides.  Selections.  Edited  by  Pro- 
lessor  R.  H.  Matuer,  Amherst  College.  Sixth  Edition.  16mo, 
150  pages.     90  cents. 

Prof.  W.  F.  Swahlen,  McKendree  College,  Ohio.  —  I  am  pleased  with 
the  Selections  themselves,  because  of  their  exceedingly  interesting  nature  ; 
pleased  with  the  amount  selected,  because  it  is  just  what  will  be  read  in 
a  term ;  pleased  with  the  notes,  because  of  their  brevity,  pertinence,  and 
comprehensiveness ;  and  now,  after  having  used  it  for  the  past  two  years, 
with  college  classes,  I  find  myself  liking  it  better  still. 

Prof.  N.  L.  Andrews,  Madison  University,  New  York.  ■—  It  is  a  most 
admirable  text-book. 

Homer's  Diad.    Books  I.  to  VX    AVith  Fac-simile  of  the 

Venetian  JVIauuscript  of  the  Iliad.  Edited,  with  an  Introduction 
and  Notes,  by  Robert  P.  Keep,  Ph.D.,  WUliston  Seminary, 
Easthampton,  Mass.     12mo,  364  pages.     $1.50. 

Books  I.  to  m.^  Without  the  Fac-simile 

of  the  Venetian  Manuscript.  With  Introduction  and  Notes  by 
Robert  P.  Keep,  Ph.D.     12rao,  216  pages.    ^0.80. 

Prof.  J.  H.  Wright,  Dartmouth  College.  —  It  possesses  many  features 
that  place  it  far  beyond  all  its  competitors. 

Prof.  George  H.  White,  Principal  Preparatory  Department,  Oberiin  Col- 
lege,  Ohio.  —  Keep's  Iliad  is  evidently  superior  to  any  edition  now  in  use, 
and  we  have  voted  to  adopt  it  for  our  classes.  The  introductory  mat- 
ter is  valuable,  and  includes  a  satisfactory  outline  of  the  Homeric  forms ; 
the  notes  are  scholarly,  graceful,  and  suggestive;  and  the  whole  work 
reveals  the  hand  of  the  experienced  and  enthusiastic  teacher. 

Prof.  Charles  F.  Smith,  Vanderbilt  University,  Nashville,  TVnn.— Ihave 
examined  Keep's  Iliad  with  the  greatest  care,  and  consider  it  by  far  the 
best  American  edition,  and,  indeed,  one  of  the  very  best  text-books  we  have. 

Prof.  Alexander  Kerr,  State  University,  Madison,  iria.  —  Keep's  lUad 
is  incomparably  the  best  edition  which  has  appeared  in  this  country. 

Isocrates,  the  Panegyricus.  With  Notes  by  C.  C.  Felton, 
LL.D.  Third  Edition,  revised  by  Professor  C.  C.  Goodwin. 
12rao,  155  pages.    |0.80. 

The  Panegyricus  has  been  selected  for  publication,  partly  because  it  is 
an  excellent  specimen  of  the  best  manner  of  Isocrates,  and  partly  because 
by  its  plan,  it  presents  a  review  of  the  history  of  Athens  from  the  mythical 
ages  down  to  the  period  following  the  treaty  of  Antalcidas,  and  is  a  con- 
venient  work  to  make  the  text-book  for  lessons  in  Greek  history.  The 
present  edition  is  by  Professor  Goodwin,  who  has  added  grammaUcal  and 
other  notes. 


JOHN  ALLYN,  Publisher, 


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Lucian,  Selections.  With  Introductions  and  Notes  b}'  Pro- 
fessor CuAULES  R.  Williams,  Lake  Forest  University.  Second 
Edition.     IGrno,  340  pages.    ^1.40. 

Short  Extracts.    Edited  by  Professor  Charles  R. 


Williams.     IGnio,  180  pages.    $0.80. 

The  Short  Extracts  contain  The  Dream,  Timon,  and 
seventeen  Dialogues.  The  Selections  include  the  same  matter, 
together  with  Charon,  The  Cock,  and  Icaromenippus. 

Prof.  J.  E.  Goodrich,  University  of  Vermont.  — These  Dialogues  of  Lucian 
are  just  the  thing  for  rapid  reading  or  for  reading  at  sight.  Lucian 
is  so  alert,  so  keen,  and  withal  so  modern  in  feeling  and  temper,  that  the 
student  is  driven  to  read  on  and  on,  just  to  see  how  the  witty  debate  will 
end.  I  am  glad  to  see  that  Professor  Williams  has  furnished  an  edition 
which  will  fully  meet  the  demands  of  the  class-room. 

Prof.  Henry  M.  Baird,  University  of  the  City  of  New  York.  —  A  con- 
venient edition  of  Lucian  has  long  been  needed.  The  want  has  now  been 
met  by  Professor  Williams's  industry  and  scholarship,  and  I  have  no  doubt 
that  the  book  will  be  duly  appreciated.  The  editor  has  collected  in  his  intro- 
duction all  that  is  most  essential  for  the  student  to  know  respecting  the 
author  of  the  dialogues  and  respecting  the  dialojjues  themselves  ;  while  the 
notes  show  a  most  judicious  choice  between  the  extremes  of  too  great  ful- 
ness and  barrenness  of  illustration.  The  typography  and  external  appear- 
ance are  unexceptionable. 

Moss's  First  Greek  Reader.  With  Introduction,  Notes, 
and  Vocabulary,  by  Professor  Charles  M.  iMoss,  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity, Illinois.     16mo,  000  pages. 

It  is  the  aim  of  the  author  to  furnish  a  Greek  book  for  beginners  which 
shall  be  simple  and  interesting,  and  at  the  same  time  contain  a  large  num- 
ber of  such  words,  phrases,  and  idioms  as  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in 
Attic  Greek.  There  has  for  some  time  been  a  demand  for  such  a  book,  to 
precede  the  Anabasis,  which  is  of  uneven  difficulty,  and  which  is  quite  apt, 
when  read  slowly  by  a  beginner,  to  grow  very  tedious. 

The  book  contains  no  disconnected  sentences.  It  consists  of  a  series  of 
carefully  graduated  exercises  for  translation,  beginning  with  the  simplest 
stories,  and  ending  with  extracts  from  Xenophon,  Herodotus,  and  Lucian, 
which  have  been  changed  and  adapted  to  the  knowledge  of  the  beginner. 
The  text  is  preceded  by  valuable  hints  on  translation,  and  followed  by 
notes  and  a  complete  vocabulary. 

It  is  believed  that  the  time  spent  in  reading  this  book,  before  taking  up 
any  Greek  author  for  consecutive  study,  will  be  more  than  saved  in  tlie 
subsequent  rapid  progress  of  the  pupil. 


JOHN  ALLYN,  Publisher, 


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JOHN  ALLYN,  Publisher, 


80,  Franklin  Street,  Boston. 


Plato's  Apology  of  Socrates  and  Crito.  With  Notes,  criti- 
cal and  exegetical,  and  a  logical  Analysis  of  the  Apology,  by  W. 
Wagner,  Ph.D.     Revised  Edition.     lUmo,  145  pages.     $0.90. 

The  text  of  this  edition  is  based  on  that  of  the  Bodleian  MS.,  and  is 
claimed  to  be  tiie  most  correct  text  extant.  Throughout  the  work,  the 
editor's  aim  has  been  to  be  as  brief  and  concise  as  possible,  not  attempting 
originality,  but  carefully  using  and  arranging  the  materials  amassed  by 
preceding  commentators.  In  the  revised  edition,  some  references  to  parallel 
passages  have  been  omitted,  and  extended  references  to  American  gram- 
mars have  been  added. 

Prof.  F.  D.  Allen,  Harvard  Coileye.  —  I  am  glad  you  have  republished 
the  book,  which,  I  think,  will  be  useful  in  this  country.  The  work,  like 
otliers  of  Wagner,  abounds  in  original  and  sensible  remarks ;  the  notes  are 
to  tlie  point,  and  tersely  expressed. 

Prof.  H.  Whitehome,  Union  College,  Schenectady.  —  I  confidently  recom- 
mend it  to  the  favorable  consideration  of  all  students.  It  is  eminently  schol- 
arly without  any  parade  of  scholarship,  and  gives  all  the  requisite  information 
without  removing  from  the  student  the  necessity  for  using  his  own  brains. 

Plato's  Fhaedo.  With  Notes,  critical  and  exegetical,  and  an 
Analysis.     By  Wiluelm  Wagner,  Ph.D.    16rao,  20G  pp.  $1.20. 

This  edition  enters  especially  into  the  critical  and  grammatical  explanation 
of  the  Phaedo,  and  does  not  profess  to  exhaust  the  philosophical  thou^it  of 
the  work,  least  of  all  to  collect  the  doctrines  and  tenets  of  later  philosophers 
and  thinkers  on  the  subjects  treated  by  Plato. 

Prof.  Ch.  Morris,  Randolph  Macon  Colletje,  Virginia. — I  have  now  in 
use,  with  my  higher  classes,  your  edition  of  the  Plia;do  of  Plato,  and  find  it 
altogether  satisfactory.  It  shows  much  greater  care  and  scholarship  than 
are  usually  found  in  college  text-books. 

Prof.  J.  Cooper,  Rutgers  College,  New  Jersey.  —  The  edition  of  Plato's 
Phaedo,  by  Wagner,  is  one  of  rare  excellence.  Seldom,  if  ever,  has  there 
been  so  much  of  value  in  a  text-book  compressed  in  so  small  a  space. 

Sophocles,  the  Ajaz.  Edited  by  R.  C.  Jebb,  M.A.,  Fellow 
of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  {Catena  Classicorum.)  12mo, 
206  pages.    $1.10. 

Mr.  Jebb  has  produced  a  work  which  will  be  read  with  interest  and  profit, 
as  it  contains,  in  a  compact  form,  not  only  a  careful  summary  of  the  labors 
of  preceding  editors,  but  also  many  acute  and  ingenious  original  remarks. 
All  questions  of  grammar,  construction,  and  philology  are  handled,  as  they 
arise,  with  a  helpful  and  sufficient  precision.  An  exhaustive  introduction 
precedes  the  play. 


Sophocles,  the  Electra.    With  Notes  by  R.  C.  Jebb.     Re- 
vised and  edited,  with  additional  Notes,  by  II.  H.  INIatiier,  Pro- 
fessor of  Greek  in  Amherst  College.     16mo,  232  pages.     $1.10. 
Prof.  W.  W.  Goodwin,  Harvard  College.  —  It  is  rare  to  find  an  edition 
of  a  classic  author  so  admirably  adapted  to  the  wants  of  students  as 
Mr.  Jebb's  "  Electra."    I  hope  this  new  edition  will  aid  in  making  it  better 
known  in  our  colleges ;  and  I  am  glad  to  see  how  much  Professor  Mather 
has  done  to  that  good  end. 

Thucydides.    The  Histor}-  of  the  War  between  the  Peloi>on- 
nesians  and  the  Athenians.    Books  I.  and  II.     Edited,  with  Notes 
and  Introduction,  by  Charles  Bigg,  M.A.,  Christ  Church,  Ox- 
ford.    (Catena  Classicorum.)     12mo,  360  pages.     $1.60. 
Mr.  Bigg  prefixes  an  Analysis  to  each  book,  and  an  admirable  introduc- 
tion to  the  whole  work,  containing  full  information  as  to  all  that  is  known 
or  related  of  Thucydides,  and  the  date  at  which  he  wrote,  followed  by  a 
very  masterly  critique  on  some  of  his  characteristics  as  a  writer.  —  London 
AthencEum. 

Xenophon's  Memorabilia.  With  Introduction  and  Notes,  by 
Professor  Samuel  Ross  Winans,  College  of  New  Jersey.  16mo, 
289  pages.    $1.20. 

The  text  is  separated  into  convenient  divisions  by  English  summaries, 
which  take  the  place  of  the  customary  argument  prefixed  to  the  chapters, 
and  put  a  logical  analysis  of  the  text  where  it  cannot  escape  the  attention 
of  the  student.  The  notes  are  designedly  compact,  yet  are  believed  to  con- 
tain all  that  is  practically  useful  to  the  student.  The  editor  has  endeavored 
to  supply  brief  sketches  of  everything  of  biographical,  historical,  or  philo- 
sophical interest. 

Prof.  A.  C.  Merriam,  Columbia  College,  New  Yorh  —  It  supplies  a 
want  long  felt,  and  I  have  no  doubt  will  be  largely  used,  as  it  deserves. 
The  introduction  ©f  the  summaries  into  the  text  adds  greatly  to  its  value, 
while  the  notes  are  succinct,  with  good  references  and  apt  illustrations. 

Prof.  C.  M.  Moss,  Wesleyan  University,  Illinois.  —  The  notes  are  ex- 
cellent, the  paragraphing  of  the  text  is  a  great  and  valuable  help  to  stu- 
dents, and  the  book  itself  is  a  model  of  neatness.  It  is  one  of  the  few 
unexceptionably  well-edited  school-books  in  my  library.  I  shall  use  it  in 
my  classes  exclusively  when  we  read  the  "  Memorabilia." 

Zenophon's  Symposium.  Edited,  with  Notes,  by  Professor 
S.  R.  Winans.  18mo,  cloth,  96  pages.  $0.50. 
The  **  Symposium,"  according  to  its  original  design,  makes  a  delightful 
afterpiece  to  the  "Memorabilia."  As  a  source  of  information  on  Attic 
morals  and  manners  its  value  is  not  easily  overestimated  ;  and  its  lively  con- 
versational style  enables  the  student  to  appreciate  Greek  idiom  and  enjoy 
the  spirit  of  the  language. 


JOHN  ALLYN,  Publisher, 


80,  Franklin  Street,  Boston. 


LATIN  TEXT  BOOKS. 


Abbott's  Latin  Prose  through  English  Idiom.  Rules  and 
Exercises  on  Latin  Prose  Composition.  By  the  Rev.  Edwin  A. 
Abbott,  D.D.,  Head-Master  of  the  City  of  London  School. 
With  Additions  by  E.  R.  Humpureys,  A.M.,  LL.D.  18mo,  205 
pages,  $0.90. 

The  author's  object  is  to  prepare  students  for  the  study  and  composition 
of  Latin  Prose,  by  calling  their  attention  first  to  the  peculiarities  of  English 
idiom,  and  then  to  the  methods  of  representing  the  English  in  the  corre- 
sponding Latin  idiom.  A  good  deal  of  space  has  been  given  to  the  Prepo- 
sitions. The  Exercises  arc  purposely  unarranged,  as  connected  examples 
are  useless  to  test  a  pupil's  knowledge. 

Prof.  Geo.  O.  Holbrooke,  Trinity  College,  Hartford.  —  Abbott's  Latin 
Prose  is  the  best  book  of  the  kind  with  which  I  am  Acquainted.  It  teaches 
the  student  to  compose  Latin,  instead  of  translating  stock  sentences. 

Prof.  E.  H.  Griffin,  Williams  Cdlege,  Williamstown.  —  Any  book  by  the 
author  of  "  English  Lessons  "  and  the  "  Shaksperian  Grammar  "  I  should 
expect  to  be  good.  This  seems  to  me  simply  admirable,  and  is  quite  as 
Taluable  for  the  study  of  English  as  for  the  study  of  Latin. 

Prof.  C.  L.  Smith,  Harvard  College.  —  I  feel  sure  the  book  will  be 
widely  used,  as  it  deals  with  Latin  Composition  in  the  only  right  way. 

Bennett's  Latin  Books.     By  George  L.  Bennett,  M.A., 

Head-Master  of  Sutton  Valence  School. 

I  Easy  Latin  Stories  for  Beginners.  With  Vocabulary 

and  Notes.     16mo,  156  pages,  $0.70. 

IL  First  Latin  "Writer.  Comprising  Accidence,  the 
easier  Rules  of  Syntax,  illustrated  by  copious  examples  and 
Progressive  Exercises  in  Elementary  Latin  Prose,  with  Vo- 
cabularies.    16mo,  218  pages,  §0.90. 

m.  First  Latin  Exercises.  Containing  all  the  Rules, 
Exercises,  and  Vocabularies  of  the  Fiust  Latix  Writer, 
but  omitting  the  Accidence.     16mo,  164  pages,  ^0.70. 

IV.  Second  Latin  Writer.  Containing  Hints  on  Writ- 
ing Latin  Prose,  with  graduated  continuous  Exercises. 
16mo,  198  pages,  10.90. 


JOHN  ALLYN,  Publisher, 


80,  Franklin  Street,  Boston, 


Prof.  A.  P.  Montague,  Columbian  University,  Washington,  D.  C.  —  I  am 
using  all  the  books  of  the  Bennett  Series  in  my  various  classes,  and  am 
charmed  with  them.  So  far  as  my  experience  goes,  they  are  by  far  the 
best  books  of  the  kind  now  before  the  public,  and  I  heartily  commend 
them. 

Dr.  A.  C.  Perkins,  Phillips- Exeter  Academy.  —  We  take  Bennett's  "First 
Latin  Writer  "  as  the  best  Manual  of  Latin  Composition  for  the  first  two 
years  of  our  course.  The  "  Easy  Latin  gtories,"  by  the  same  author,  is 
excellently  fitted  for  pupils  when  tlicy  are  beginning  to  read  Latin. 

Dr.  H.  T.  Fuller,  St.  Johnsbury  Academy,  Vt.  —  We  have  used  Bennett's 
"First  Latin  Writer"  for  the  last  two  years,  and  find  it  eminently  satis- 
factory. It  involves  a  knowledge  of  all  the  principles  of  grammar  and 
Latin  idioms,  and,  by  a  skilful  selection  of  review  work,  obliges  the  pupil  to 
keep  what  he  has  once  acquired.  Its  breadth  of  vocabulary  is  commendable 
in  that  it  is  not  restricted  to  the  words  of  any  single  author. 

Prof.  C.  L.  Smith,  Harvard  College.  ^ The  "Second  Latin  Writer"  is 
quite  a  useful  book,  and  contains  a  very  valuable  collection  of  exercises. 
The  Introduction  gives  the  student  sound  advice,  and  many  excellent  notes 
on  idiom. 

Cicero  De  Senectute  and  De  Amicitia.  With  Notes  by 
James  S.  IIeid,  M.A.,  Cambridge,  England.  American  edition, 
revised  by  Professor  Francis  W.  Kelsey,  Lake  Forest  Univer- 
sity. Second  Edition.  16mo,  279  pages,  $1.20.  Each  part 
separately,  ^0.75. 
Prof.  M.  M.  Fisher,  University  of  Missouri.  — The  edition  is  in  every 
respect  the  best  I  have  seen,  and  I  shall  use  it  in  my  classes. 

Prof.  J.  H.  Chamberlin,  Marietta  College,  Ohio.  — It  is  certainly  the  best 
edition  of  these  works  of  Cicero  with  which  I  am  acquainted.  I  have  used 
the  edition  by  Beid,  and  consider  it  a  work  of  high  merit.  Professor 
Kelsey's  revision  seems  to  me  to  retain  all  the  desirable  features  of  the 
original  edition,  while  much  has  been  added  which  is  of  especial  value  to 
the  American  student. 

Prof.  A.  G.  Hopkins,  Hamilton  College,  New  For^-.  — It  is  a  handsome 
piece  of  work  in  every  respect,  and  will,  I  doubt  not,  meet  with  a  cordial  re- 
ception. The  text  is  far  better  than  that  of  any  other  edition,  and  the  notes 
are  very  clear  and  scholarly.    I  know  of  nothing  better  for  our  use  here. 

Cicero  Pro  Cluentio.  With  Notes  by  Professor  Austin 
Stickxey.  Fourth  Edition.  IGmo,  156  pages,  l$0.80. 
This  edition  is  intended  for  use  as  a  college  text-book,  and  the  notes  are 
designed  to  supply  the  student  only  with  such  information  in  respect  to  the 
facts  of  the  case  and  the  scope  of  the  argument,  as  is  necessary  to  the  proper 
understanding  of  the  Oration. 


JOHN  ALLYN,  Publisher, 


80,  Franklin  Street,  Boston. 


Comstock's  First  Latin  Book.  Designed  as  a  Manual  of 
Progressive  Exercises  and  Systematic  Drill  in  the  Elements  of 
Latin.  By  D.  Y.  Comstock,  M.A.,  Phillips  Academy,  Andover, 
Mass.     12mo,  cloth,  400  pages,  ^1.00. 

John  S.  White,  LL.D.,  FTead-Master  Berkeley/  School,  New  York  City. — 
Comstock's  Latin  Book  1  find  the  best  book  for  its  purpose  that  I  have  ever 
used.  The  review  of  English  Grammar  at  the  beginning ;  the  separation 
of  the  vocabularies  from  the  exercises ;  judicious  and  progressive  presen- 
tation of  the  various  uses  of  the  verb  in  the  different  moods ;  and  the  con- 
densed exhibit  of  the  grammar,  —  are  such  valuable  features  gathered 
within  the  covers  of  a  text-book,  that  it  lias  no  rival. 

Nathan  Thompson,  A.M.,  Princijxil  Laurence  Academy,  Groton,  Mass. 
—  It  is  altogether  the  best  Latin  book  for  beginners  with  which  I  am 
acquainted. 

Geo.  B.  Tumbul,  Colgate  Acad.,  riamilton,  N.  Y.  —  I  am  using  Com- 
stock's First  Latin  Book  with  the  Junior  Class,  and  find  it  even  more 
satisfactory  than  I  had   hoped. 

Prof.  E.  Alexander,  University  of  Tennessee,  Knorville.  —  Comstock's 
Latin  Book  is  in  use  in  our  preparatory  department,  and  is  perfectly 
satisfactory.    A  better  text-book  is  not  often  seen. 

Prof.  H.  C.  Missimer,  High  School,  Erie,  Pa.  —  It  is  very  easy  to  see 
that  Comstock's  First  Latin  Book  is  the  work  of  a  thorough  teacher, 
who  has  had  actual  experience  in  the  class-room  with  the  difliculties  which 
beginners  in  Latin  usually  meet.  Its  classification  and  methods  are  thor- 
ough  and  complete ;  its  language  is  clear  and  simple.  Mr.  Comstock  has 
hit  the  nail  on  the  head.  He  knows  just  what  and  just  how  much  grammar 
is  needed  for  good,  clean  work.  We  have  had  Leighton  and  Jones,  — both 
good,  —  but  we  like  Comstock  more,  because  it  is  better. 

Horace.  With  English  Notes,  by  the  Rev.  A.  J.  IVLicleane, 
M.A.  Revised  and  edited  by  R.  H.  Chase,  A.M.  Thirteenth 
Edition.     12mo,  580  pages,  $1.30. 

Chas.  P.  Parker,  Harvard  College.  —  Chase's  Macleane's  Horace  I  have 
long  known  and  used,  and  have  found  it  thoroughly  satisfactory  botli  in 
study  and  in  teaching. 

Prof.  Herbert  W.  Smyth,  Williams  College,  3/ass.— -lam  glad  to 
express  my  commendation  of  Macleane's  Horace  as  republished  by  you. 
Its  scholarly  character  places  it  at  the  head  of  all  editions  used  in  schools, 
while  its  just  discrimination  in  the  selection  of  notes  adds  materially  to  its 
usefulness. 

Prof.  J.  H.  Chamberlin,  Marietta,  Ohio.  —  I  recommend  Macleane's 
Horace  to  my  classes.    It  is  a  most  excellent  edition. 


JOHN  ALLYN,  Publisher, 


80,  Franklin  Street,  Boston. 


JuvenaL     Thirteen  Satires,  with  Notes  by  Macleane.    Re- 
vised and  Edited  by  Professor  Samuel  Hart,  Trinity  College, 
Hartford.     Fifth  Edition.     IGmo,  2G2  pages,  .^1.10. 
Prof.  E.  P.  OrovftW,  Amherst  College.  —  The  work  of  the  American  edi- 
tor is  done   with  excellent  judgment,  and  his  additions  to  the  notes  will 
greatly  increase  their  value  for  our  students. 

Prof.  L.  Coleman,  Lafayette  College,  Euston,  Pa. — ^I  am  happy  to  say  that 
I  have  in  use  Professor  Hart's  edition  of  Juvenal,  and  find  it  a  very  useful, 
judicious,  and  scholarly  manual,  admirably  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  class. 

JuvenaL  Thirteen  Satires,  with  Notes  and  Introduction  by 
G.  A.  SiMCOX,  M.A.,  Fellow  of  Queen*s  College,  Oxford.  Sec- 
ond Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  (Catena  Classicorum.)  16mo, 
225  pages,  81.20. 

Prof.  F.  P.  Nash,  Hohart  College,  New  York.  ^The  charm  of  Mr.  Sim- 
cox's  work  lies  in  the  very  scholarly  character  of  his  notes  and  their  fresh- 
ness. They  are  original,  and  are  marked  by  a  real  desire  to  place  in  the 
hands  of  the  learner  all  that  is  most  effective  to  throw  light  upon  the  author. 
The  introduction  is  calculated  to  give  the  student  much  insight  into  the 
writings  of  Juvenal  and  their  relation  to  his  age. 

Latin  Selections.  Being  Specimens  of  the  Latin  Language 
and  Literature  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  end  of  the  Classical 
period.  Edited  by  Professor  Edmund  H.  Smith,  Hobart  Col- 
lege, N.  y.     12mo,  420  pages,  ^1.75. 

Prof.  Charles  Chandler,  Denison  University,  Granville,  Ohio.  —  I  consider 
the  Selections  to  be  an  excellent  and  long-needed  book.  I  shall  use  it 
more  or  less  every  term  from  the  beginning  of  Freshman  year.  For  reading 
at  sight  it  is  just  the  thing  that  I  have  wanted,  and,  in  connection  with  the 
study  of  the  development  of  Roman  Literature,  such  a  book  will  be  highly 
interesting  and  profitable.  I  have  always  maintained  that  it  is  a  flat,  stale, 
and  unprofitable  task  for  the  student  to  read  about  the  productions  of  Latin 
authors,  without  at  the  same  time  studying  the  productions  themselves. 

Prof.  J.  H.  Hewitt,  Williams  College,  W ill iamstown,  Mass.  — The  Selec- 
tions have  been  made  with  discretion,  not  only  in  that  they  are  interesting 
in  themselves,  but  in  that  they  are  such  as  to  show  the  peculiarities  of  the 
thougiit  and  style  of  the  several  writers.  The  book  cannot  fail  to  be  useful 
as  a  manual  of  exercises  for  translation  at  sight,  and  also  as  a  text-book  in 
connection  with  instruction  in  the  history  of  Latin  literature. 

Prof.  Tracy  Peck,  Yale  College,  New  Haven,  Conn.  —  The  plan  seems  to 
me  to  be  carried  out  with  excellent  judgment  and  taste.  This  work  cer- 
tainly gives  in  succinct  and  attractive  form  a  clear  view  of  Roman  literature 
throughout  its  best  periods 


JOHN  ALLYN,  Publisher, 


80,  Franklin  Street,  Boston, 


JOHN  ALLYN,  Publisher, 


80,  Franklin  Street,  Boston. 


Lucretius;  De  Rerum  Natura  Libri  Sex.  With  an  Introduc- 
tion aud  Notes  to  Books  I.,  III.,  and  V.,  by  Francis  W.  Kelsey, 
M.A.,  Professor  of  Latin  in  Lake  Forest  University.  IGmo, 
444  pages,  8175. 

Prof.  Saml.  Hart,  Trinity  College,  Hartford. —It  is  a  most  excellent  edi- 
tion, and,  coming  at  a  time  when  renewed  interest  is  felt  in  the  doctrines 
and  writings  of  Lucretius,  its  publication  meets  a  real  want. 

Prof.  C.  J.  Harris,  Washington  and  l^e  University/,  Va.  —  It  is  an  admi- 
rable edition,  and  will  be  thoroughly  helpful  in  the  difficult  work  of  devel- 
oping the  school-boy  into  the  scholar.  The  editor  has  caught  much  of  the 
enthusiasm  of  his  author,  and  the  wide  and  varied  reading  which  he  has 
brought  to  bear  upon  his  work,  and  his  freshness  and  vigor  of  treatment, 
cannot  but  prove  very  stimulating  to  earnest  and  ambitious  students. 

Prof.  L.  S.  Potw'm,  Adelbert  College,  Cleveland,  0.  —  I  like  it  much,  and 
think  it  not  only  well  annotated,  but  also  prepared  on  the  true  theory, 
viz. :  to  give  the  whole  text,  and  notes  on  a  part.  This  gives  a  chance  for 
independent  study  on  a  portion,  and  practice  in  reading  at  sight. 

Persius.  The  Satires  ;  with  Notes,  based  on  those  of  Macleane 
and  Conington,  by  the  Rev.  Samuel  Hart,  M.A.,  Professor  in 
Trinity  College,  Hartford.     16mo,  91  pages,  110.75. 

The  text  of  this  edition  agrees  in  most  places  with  that  of  Jahn.  In  the 
arguments  prefixed  to  each  satire,  the  editor  has  endeavored  to  give  a 
suggestive  outline  of  the  poet's  thoughts,  and  in  the  notes,  to  point  out  as 
clearly  as  possible  the  connection  of  one  idea,  or  one  part  of  the  poem,  with 
another. 

Plautus.    The  Mostellaria.     Edited  by  Professor  E.  P.  Mor- 
ris, Williams  College,  Mass.    Third  Edition.     lOmo,  180  pages, 
^1.00. 

Prof.  J.  E.  Goodrich,  University  of  Vermont.  —  It  is  the  best  American 
edition  of  any  play  of  Plautus. 

Prof.  A.  G.  Hopkins,  Hamilton  College,  New  York.  —  Your  edition  of 
the  Mostellaria  by  Morris  is  elegant  in  appearance,  and  has  a  scholarly 
finish  to  it  which  no  American  edition  of  Plautus  has  hitherto  shown.  The 
Introduction  is  full  and  interesting ;  the  text  is  a  model  of  typographical 
beauty ;  and  the  notes  explain  to  the  young  student  all  the  difficulties  and 
peculiarities  of  the  text. 

Prof.  John  K.  Lord,  Dartmoxith  College,  N.  H.  —  l  think  the  notes  judi- 
cious, correct,  and  well  digested,  giving  the  right  kind  of  information  in  the 
right  way. 


Pliny's  Letters.  Selections  from  the  Letters  of  the  Younger 
Pliny.  Edited,  with  Notes  and  Index,  by  George  O.  Hol- 
brooke, M.A.,  Professor  of  Latin  in  Trinity  College,  Hartford. 
IGmo,  218  pages,  $1.00. 

Prof.  F.  P.  Nash,  Hobart  College,  Geneva,  N.  Y.  —  It  is  evident  on  every 
page  of  this  interesting  volume  that  it  is  the  work  of  a  scholar,  and  that  it 
belongs  to  that  new  school  of  American  editions  which  has  at  last  learned 
to  stand  on  its  own  legs,  and  use  its  own  brains  to  some  better  purpose  than 
merely  to  decide  from  whom  it  is  best  to  borrow. 

Prof.  Minton  Warren,  Johns  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore,  Md.  —  I 
find  the  text  and  notes  very  satisfactory,  and  shall  make  use  of  the  book  in 
our  course  here  next  year. 

Tacitus.     Selections^  embracing  the  more  striking  portions  of 

his  different  works.     With  Notes,  Introduction,  and  a  Collection 

^  of  his  Aphorisms.     By  J.  T.  Champlin.     Fifth  Edition.    IGmo, 

272  pages,  $1.10. 

The  design  of  this  book  is  to  give  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  writings 
of  Tacitus  in  a  comparatively  small  space.  For  this  purpose,  portions  have 
been  taken  from  all  his  works,  except  the  Germania,  but  not  without  due 
regard  to  unity  in  the  main  parts.  All  biographical  and  historical  informa- 
tion which  seemed  to  be  required  kas  been  introduced  into  the  notes.  The 
introduction  contains  a  translation  of  Dr.  Draeger's  excellent  essay  on  the 
peculiarities  of  the  language  and  style  of  Tacitus. 

Thomas  Chase,  President  Haverford  College,  Pa.  —  A  very  interesting 
and  useful  text-book  has  been  made  up  by  these  admirable  selections.  The 
notes  are  able  and  judicious,  and  supply  just  the  information  needed  by 
students.  Dr.  Draeger's  exhaustive  essay  on  the  language  and  style  of 
Tacitus  is  of  the  greatest  value  to  scholars. 


ENGLISH   TEXT   BOOKS. 


OWEN'S  HAMILTON'S  METAPHYSICS.    Tli« 

Metaphysics  of   Sir  William  Hamilton,  collected,  arranged, 
and  abridged  by  Francis  Bo  wen,  Alford  Professor  of  Moral 
Philosophy  in  Harvard  College.     12mo,  570  pages.    $1.50. 

The  editor  has  endeavored  to  prepare  a  text-book  which  should  contain,  iaa 
Hamilton's  own  language,  the  substance  of  all  that  he  wrote  upon  the  I'lbject  of 
metaphysics. 

I  cannot  refrain  from  conprratulating  yon  on  your  success.    You  have  given  th« 
Metaphysics  of  Sir  Wm.  Haniiltou  in  his  own  words,  and  yet  in  a  form  admirably 
adapted  to  the  recitation  room,  and  also  to  private  students. — James  Walker^  D.J). 
LL.D  f  late  President  of  Ilattnrd  University. 

The  students  of  our  colleges  are  to  be  congratulated  that  the  labors  of  the  preat 
master  of  metaphysical  science  are  now  rendered  much  more  availing  for  their  ben- 
efit, than  they  weVe  made,  perhaps  than  they  could  have  been  made,  by  his  own 
hand.  —  North  American  Rtvieto, 

BOWEN'S  LOGIC.     A  Treatise  on  Logic,  or  the  Laws  of 

Pure  Thought;  comprising  both  the  Aristotelic  and  Ilamiltonian 
Analyses  of  Logical  Forms,  and  some  chapters  on  Applied  Logic. 
By  Prof.  F.  Bo  wen.    12mo,  476  pages.    ^1.50. 

Throughout  the  work  the  author  has  kept  constantly  in  view  the  wants  of 
learners,  much  of  it  having  been  first  suggested  by  the  experience  of  his  own  class 
room. 

I  have  found  it  the  most  thorough  and  systematic  text-book  on  the  subject  with 
which  I  am  acquainted.  It  fully  supplies  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  written, 
and,  in  the  hands  of  a  good  teacher,  it  furnishes  all  the  aid  that  he  or  his  clast 
will  need.  —  E.  0.  Hcecen^  LL.D.^  late  President  of  University  of  Michigan. 

As  an  English  text-book  in  this  department  of  philosophy,  I  have  seen  nothing 
to  be  compared  with  it.  — James  Walker ,  D.D.^  LL.D.y  UUe  President  of  Barvtuv 
University. 

OOKE'S  CHEMICAL  PHILOSOPHY.     Principles 
of  Chemical  Philosophy,  by  Josiah  P.  Cooke,  Jr.,  Erving 
Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Mineralogy  in  Harvard  College. 
Fourth  Edition,  revised  and  corrected.     8vo,  6U0  pages.    ^3.50. 

The  object  of  this  book  is  to  present  the  philosophy  of  chemistry  in  such  a 
form  that  it  can  be  made  with  profit  the  subject  of  college  recitations.  The  author 
haa  found,  by  long  experience,  that  a  recitation  on  mere  descriptions  of  apparatus 
and  experiments  is  all  but  worthless,  while  the  study  of  the  philosophy  of  chemis- 
try may  be  made  highl}*  profitable  both  for  instruction  and  discipline.  Part  L 
of  the  book  contains  a  statement  of  the  general  laws  and  theories  of  chemistry, 
together  with  so  much  of  the  principles  of  molecular  physics  as  are  constantly  ap- 
plied to  chemical  investigations.    It  might  be  called  a  Grammar  of  the  scienoe^ 


Part  II.  presents  the  scheme  of  the  chemical  elements,  and  should  only  be  studieo 
in  connection  with  experimental  lectures  or  laboratory  work.  In  the  new  edition, 
the  text  has  been  altered  wherever  corrections  have  been  made  necessary  by  the 
recent  progress  of  the  science. 

I  consider  it  one  of  the  very  best  works  on  the  subject  in  the  English  lanpage. 
It  is  concise,  comi)jut,  philosophical,  c&^ital— Professor  J.  S.Schanck,  Colleye  of 
New  Jersey,  Princtton. 

As  far  as  our  recollection  goes,  we  do  not  think  there  exists  in  anv  language  a 
book  on  so  difficult  a  subject  as  this  so  carefully,  clearly,  and  lucidly  written.  — 
Litndon  Chemical  News. 

COOKE'S  CHEMICAL  PHYSICS.  Elements  of  Chemi- 
cal Physics.  By  Professor  Josiah  P.  Cooke,  Jr.  Third  Edition. 
8vo,  750  pages.     ^4.50 

This  volume  is  intended  to  furnish  a  full  development  of  the  principles  in- 
volved in  the  investigation  of  chemical  phenomena.  In  order  to  adapt  it  to  the 
purposes  of  instruction,  it  has  been  prepared  on  a  strictly  indurtiV*.  "••thod  through- 
out; ana  any  student  with  an  elementary  knowledge  of  mathematics  will  be  able 
to  follow  the  course  of  reasoning  without  difficulty.  Each  chapter  is  followed  by  a 
large  number  of  problems,  which  are  calculated,  not  only  to  test  the  knowledge  of 
the  student,  but  also  to  extend  and  apply  the  principles  discussed  in  the  work. 


ENNELL'S  ANCIENT   HISTORIES. 
ANCIENT   GREECE,  from  the  Earliest   Times  down  to 
146  B.  c.      By  R.  F.  Pennell,  Professor  of  Latin  in  Phillips 
Exeter  Academy.   With  Map  and  Plans.    16mo,  130  pages.    60  cents. 

ROME,  from  the  Earliest  Times  down  to  476  a.d.  16mo, 
206  pages.     60  cents. 

These  books  are  compiled  respectively  from  the  works  of  Curtius  and  Rawlinson, 
and  from  Mommsen  and  Niebuhr.  They  contain  amply  sufficient  matter  to  prepare 
a  pupil  for  any  of  our  colleges.  All  minor  details  are,  however,  omitted,  thus 
avoiding  a  confused  mass  of  matter  so  perplexing  to  every  beginner.  Important 
events,  names,  and  dates  are  printed  in  heavy  type,  strongly  impressing  them 
upon  the  student's  memory. 

I  knew  of  no  other  compend  of  Roman  Geoffrapl^y  and  History  so  well  fitted 
for  students  in  the  earlv  stapes  of  a  classical  education.  In  addition  to  its  worth 
as  a  school  book,  it  is  of  no  little  value  as  a  reference  book  for  the  leading  names, 
dates,  and  facts  of  Roman  history.  —  ^.  P.  Peabody,  D.D.,  Harvard  University. 

It  is  a  most  judicious  epitome  of  Greek  history,  containing  just  those  salient 
points  about  which  all  the  minor  events  naturally  group  themselves.  Teachers  ami 
pupils  will  rejoice  to  be  free  from  Smith's  maze  of  petty  names  and  events.  — /To- 
fessor  W.  M.  Jeferis,  Delaware  College. 

I  am  very  much  pleased  with  the  Greek  history,  and  believe  it  will  meet  the 
waats  of  classes  fitting  lor  college,  better  than  anv  thing  of  the  kmd  that  has  bc« 
published.  — i^ro/ei»o»-  Charles  Dole,  Northfield,  Veiinont. 

PENNELL'S  LATIN  SUBJUNCTIVE.  The  Latin 
Subjunctive,  a  Manual  for  Preparatory  Schools.  By  Professor  R.  F. 
Pennkll      16mo,  sewed,  56  pages.    25  cents. 


FRENCH  TEXT  BOOKa 


BOHN'S  CLASSICAL  LIBRAEY. 


HARDENAL'S    FRENCH    SERIES. 
FIRST  FRENCH  COURSE,  or  Rules  and  Exercises  for 
Beginners.  By  C.  A.  Chardenal.  16mo,  220  pages.  CO  ceuts. 

SECOND  FRENCH  COURSE,  or  French  Syntax  and  Reader. 
16mo,  250  pages.    75  cents. 

FRENCH  EXERCISES  FOR  ADVANCED  PUPILS,  containing 
Rules  of  French  Syntax,  Exercises  on  Rules  and  Idioms,  and  a 
Dictionary  of  nearly  Four  Thousand  Idiomutical  Verbs,  Sentences, 
Phrases,  and  Proverbs.     16mo,  332  pages.    $1.00. 

These  books  have  been  carefully  graded  to  meet  the  wants  alike  of  the  begin- 
ner and  of  the  advanced  pupil.  Taken  together,  they  furnish  a  complete  course  of 
French  grammar,  with  exercises  for  translation  into  French  and  English.  The 
first  two  volumes  contain,  in  addition,  a  French  Reader,  with  complete  vocabularies  j 
and  the  last  book  contains  also  a  long  list  of  French  idioms,  arranged  in  sections, 
with  exercises  for  translation  and  retranslation  on  each  section. 

I  have  examined  very  carefully  the  book  of  Chardenal  you  had  the  kinanoM  lA 
tend  me.  I  shall  most  certainly  use  it  in  some  of  my  classes,  and  introduce  it  next 
year  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology Proftuor  J.  Levy,  Boston. 

Monsieur  Chardenal's  system  of  teaching  French,  unlike  that  of  some  modern 
professors,  is  based  upon  a  sound  and  thorough  comprehension  of  the  rules  of  the 
language.  He  does  not  profess  to  teach  French  in  a  fortnight,  or,  may  be,  in  a 
week  ;  but  tells  his  pupils  at  the  outset  that  the  knowledge  of  French,  like  any  other 
knowledge  worth  acquiring,  can  only  be  got  at  bv  hard  and  perseverinj;  labor, 
extended  over  a  considerable  space  of  time.  We  cordially  recommend  his  volumes. 
—  London  Spectator, 

They  are  certainly  the  best  books  for  the  teaching  of  French  I  have  ever  seen, 
and  I  have  no  hesitation  in  making  them  the  text-books  here.  —  Prq/e^or  M.  B. 
Anderson^  Butler  University,  Indiana. 

Le  recueil  d'exercices  public  par  M.  Chardenal  r^pond  parfaitemcnt,  selnn  mol, 
an  but  que  I'auteur  se  propose.  .  .  .  £n  un  mot,  ces  exercices  apprendront  aux 
^Idves  a  parler  fran^ais,  au  lieu  de  se  servir  de  phrases  litti^ralement  traduites  de 
I'anglais.  —  Professor  Karcher,  Royal  Military  Academy,  Woolwich. 

Je  puis  vous  dire,  en  toute  sinc^ritd,  que  vous  avez  fait  un  travail  boa  ot  utile. 
Le  recueil  d'expressions  idioniatiques  est  excellent  et  ferait  &  lui  seul  le  succ^  de 
votio  livre.— P/'o/ejtfor  Ch.  CasscU,  LL.D.,  University  Colleye,  London. 

Le«  regies  sont  si  braves  et  si  claires,  les  themes  si  bien  gradual,  et  les  idiot- 
Ismessi  bien  rendus  en  anglais,  que  I'utilitedu  livre  pour  les  maitres  aussi  bien  que 
pour  lea  d^ves  n'admet  aucun  doute.  —  Pro/e«(w  Scnqff'er,  St.  Andrews  Univtrutjf 


A  series  of  literal  translations  into  English  prose.    12mo.     Cloth. 


Any  volume  sent,  post-paid,  on  receipt  of  price. 


.^schylus $1  00 

Ammianus  Marcellinus  .    .    .    2.60 
Antoninus,  Thoughts     .    .    .    100 

Apuleius 1^ 

Aristophanes.    2  vols.,  each    .    1.50 

Aristotle's  Ethics;  Politics  and 

Economics  ;     Metaphysics  ; 

History  of  Animals ;   Rhe^ 

oric  and  Poetics.     6  vols., 

each 1.60 

Organon.    2  vols.,  each    .    .    1.00 
AthenaBUS.    3  vols.,  each     .    .     1.50 

Caesar 1-^ 

Catullus,  Tibullus,  &c.    .    .    .    150 
Cicero's  Orations.    4  vols.,  each    1.50 

—  De  Natura  Deorum,  &c.  .    . 

—  Academics,  De  Finibus,  and 
Tusculan  Questions    .    .    . 

—  Oratory  and  Orators  .    .    . 

—  Offices,   Old  Age,    Friend- 
ship, &c 

Demosthenes's     Orations.      5 
vols.    Vol.  I.,  $1.00;  Vols. 

II.  to  v.,  each 150 

Diogenes  Laertius     ....    150 

Epictetus 1-^ 

Euripides.    2  toIs.,  each     .    .    1.50 

Herodotus l-^O 

Hesiod,  Callimachus,  and  The- 

ognis l'^^ 

Homer's  Iliad 1-50 

Homer's  Odyssey,  Hymns,  &c.    1.50 


1.50 

1.50 
1.50 

1.00 


Horace $1.00 

Justin,  Nepos,  and  Eutropius  .  1.50 
Juvenal,  Persius,  &c.  ...  1.60 
Livy.    4  vols.,  each    ....     1.50 

Lucan's  Pharsalia 1-50 

Lucretius 1-^ 

Martial's  Epigrams    ....    2.50 

Nepos,  see  Justin. 

Ovid.    3  vols.,  each    ....    1.60 

Persius,  see  Juvenal. 

Petronius,  see  Propertius. 

Phaedrus,  see  Terence. 

Pindar 1-50 

Plato.  6  vols.,  each  ....  1.50 
Plautus.  2  vols.,  each  .  .  .  1.50 
Pliny's    Natural    History.     6 

vols.,  each 1-50 

Pliny's  Letters 1-50 

Propertius,  Petronius,  &c.  .  .  1.60 
Quintilian's  Institutes.  2  vols., 

each 1-"^ 

Sallust,  Florus,  &c 1-50 

Sophocles 1*50 

Strabo's  Geography.     3  vols., 

each 1-50 

Suetonius,  Lives  of  the  Caesars    1.50 
Tacitus.    2  vols.,  each    .     .     . 
Terence  and  Phaedrus    .    .    . 
Theocritus,  Bion,and  Moschus 
Thucydides.    2  vols.,  each  .    . 

Virgil 

Xenophon.    3  vols.,  each    .     . 


1.50 
1.50 
1.50 
1.00 
1.00 
1.50 


J 


JOHN  ALLYN,  Importer  and  Publisher,  30,  Franklin  Street,  Boston. 


BENNETT'S    LATIN    BOOKS. 

By  GEORGE  L.  BENNETT,  M.A., 

Etad  Master  of  the  High  School,  Plymouth,  Eng.,  formerly  Assistant  Master 

at  Rugby  School. 


I.  Easy  Latin  Stories  for  Begrinners.    With  Vocabulary  and 

Notes.    16mo.    70  cts. 

The  aim  of  this  book  is  to  supply  easy  stories  illustrating  the  elementary 
principles  of  the  Simple  and  Compound  Sentence.  It  is  intended  to  be  used 
either  as  a  First  Header,  introductory  to  Cajsar,  or  for  reading  at  sight, 
for  both  of  which  purposes  it  is  admirably  adapted.  The  stories  are  various 
and  amusing,  and  it  is  hoped  the  notes  will  be  found  careful  and  judicious. 

II.  First   Latin   Writer.    Comprising  Accidence,  the  easier  Rules 

of  Syntax,  illustrated  by  copious  examples  and  Progressive  Exer- 
cises in  Elementary  Latin  Prose,  with  Vocabularies.    16mo.  90  cts. 

"  The  book  is  a  perfect  model  of  what  a  Latin  Writer  should  be,  and  is  so 
graduated  that  from  the  beginning  of  a  boy's  classical  course  it  will  serve 
him  throughout  as  a  text-book  for  Latm  Prose  Composition." 

m.  First  Latin  Exercises.  Containing  all  the  Rules,  Exercises, 
and  Vocabularies  of  the  First  Latik  Writer,  but  omitting  the 
Accidence.    16mo.    70  cts. 

rV.  Second  Latin  Writer.  Containing  Hints  on  Writing  Latin 
Prose,  with  graduated  continuous  Exercises.     16mo.    90  cts. 

Intended  for  those  who  have  already  mastered  the  elementary  rules  ol 
Latin  Prose,  this  book  contains  hints  on  the  difference  between  English  and 
Latin  in  idiom  and  in  style,  some  notes  on  the  commoner  diflSculties,  and  a 
table  of  differences  of  idiom.  The  Three  Hundred  Exercises  are  fresh  and 
interesting,  and  give  ample  room  for  selection. 


BENNETTS   LATIN  BOOKS,   Continued. 

One  or  more  of  the  above  books  are  NOW  IN  USE  in  Phillips- 
Exeter  Academy ;  Phillips- Andover  Academy  ;  St.  Paul's  School, 
Concord,  N.  U. ;  St.  Mark's  School,  Southboro',  Mass. ;  St.  Johns  bury 
Academy ;  Adams  Academy,  Quincy,  Mass. ;  Williston  Semmary, 
Easthampton ;  Harvard  College ;  Amherst  College ;  Boston  Univer- 
sity ;  Indiana  University ;  and  many  other  institutions  of  similar 
standing. 

From  Principal  A.  C.  Perkins,  Exeter  Academy, 

•*  We  take  Bennett's  '  First  Latin  Writer'  as  the  Best  Manual  of  Latin 
Composition  for  the  first  two  years  of  our  course.  The  '  Easy  Latin  Sto- 
ries '  by  the  same  author  is  excellently  fitted  for  pupils  when  they  are  begin- 
ning to  read  Latin." 


From  Dr.  H.  T.  Fuller,  St.  Johnshury  Academy. 

"  We  have  used  Bennett's  '  First  Latin  Writer '  for  the  last  two  years, 
and  find  it  eminently  satisfactory.  Instead  of  giving  detached  sentences 
to  illustrate  special  grammatical  principles,  like  most  4)ooks  of  the  sort,  it 
takes  the  pupil  over  a  well-graded  series  of  exercises  to  the  writing  of  con- 
nected discourse.  It  involves  a  knowledge  of  all  the  principles  of  Grammar 
and  Latin  Idioms,  and,  by  a  skilful  selection  of  review  work,  obliges  the 
pupil  to  keep  what  he  has  once  acquired.  Its  breadth  of  vocabulary  is  com- 
mendable in  that  it  is  not  restricted  to  the  words  of  any  single  author.'' 


From  The  N.  E.  Journal  of  Education 

**In  the  *  Latin  Writers  *  the  editor  has  not  sought  by  a  special  and  limited 
vocabulary  to  assist  the  pupil  in  reading  one  particular  author,  but  has 
rather  endeavored,  by  a  copious  vocabulary  and  gradual  but  frequent  use  of 
all  the  rules  of  Syntax,  to  give  the  pupil  an  excellent  foundation  for  a  sound 
and  comprehensive  knowledge  of  Latin  Prose  Composition.  The  exercises, 
too,  are  interesting  in  themselves,  and  take  up  the  different  idiomatic  pecul- 
iarities in  such  an  easy  and  natural  way,  that  the  pupil  almost  unconsciously 
masters  them,  without  having  theril  glaringly  thrust  upon  him  in  little 
detached  sentences,  which,  when  mixVi  up  in  a  narrative,  he  fails  of  course 
to  recognize.  We  cordially  recommei||  these  books  to  the  attention  of  all 
classical  teachers." 


JOHN  ALLTN,  Publisher,  30,  Franklin  Street,  Boston. 


DE   TOCQUEVILLE'S 

DEMOCRACY  IN  AMERICA. 


TRANSLATED  BY  REEVE. 


Revised  and  Edited,  with  Notes,  by  Francis  Bowen,  Pro- 
fessor of  Moral  Philosophy  in  Harvard  University.  Sixth 
Edition.     2  vols.  8vo.    Cloth.    $5.00. 

A  cheaper  edition  of  Vol.  I.,  with  especial  reference  to  its  use 
as  a  Text-Book,  is  also  issued,  under  the  title  of  AMERICAN 
INSTITUTIONS,  in  lamo,  cloth.    Price  $1.20. 


Prom  tJu  Washington  Giobo, 

By  the  common  consent  of  all  critics,  this  is  the  best  work  on  Democracy  in  andent 
or  modem  literature.*  It  has  had  the  universal  good  fortune  to  please  men  of  all 
•hades  of  political  opinion,  for  the  simple  reason  that,  being  the  work  of  a  man  who 
•trove  to  attain  the  just  medium  in  all  his  opinions,  who  was  a  sincere  seeker  after 
truth,  and  whose  chief  aim  in  life  was  the  good  of  mankind,  it  bears  throughoa* 
•trong  marks  of  impartiality,  sincerity,  and  honesty. 

FromtkoA'.  V,  Tribunt, 

The  more  it  is  studied,  the  more  reason  one  will  find  to  admire  the  philosophical 
•pirit  which  pervades  every  part,  without  being  anywhere  ofiFensively  obtruded ;  its 
luminous  method ;  the  accurate  knowledge  of  our  institutions  which  it  reveals  alike 
m  their  spirit  and  in  their  details;  and  the  accuracy,  clearness,  and  grace  of  the 
•tyle.  .  .  .  Professor  Bowen  has  subjected  Reeve's  version  to  a  careful  supervision, 
and  has  almost  rewritten  it.  He  has  made  it  more  correct  and  more  compact  by  lop- 
ping off  its  redundancy  and  tightening  its  structure,  so  that  it  not  only  better  repro> 
■eots  De  Tocqueville,  but  it  is  better  English. 

From  tht  National  Qnarttrfy  Rtviow. 

De  Tocqueville  has  become  a  classic  in  every  literature  in  Christendom.  His 
•*  Democracy  in  America"  is  everywhere  recognized  as  a  standard  authority.  True, 
he  wrote  this  work  thirty  years  ago :  at  least  a  score  have  been  written  on  the  same 
subject  since ;  but  his  is  worth  five  score.  Yet  it  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  one 
now  before  us  is  the  only  edition  in  English  of  "  Democracy  in  America  "  which  is  at 
all  worthy  of  the  author,  or  of  the  subject  which  he  handles  with  such  masterly  skill. 


i 


JOHN  ALLYN,  PUBUSHEE,  BOSTON,  MASS. 


This  book  is  dtie  two  weeks  from  the  last  date  stamped 
below,  and  if  not  returned  at  or  before  that  time  a  fine  of 
five  cents  a  day  will  be  incurred. 


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